Children?s relationships with their physical school: Considerations of primary school architecture and furniture design in a social and cultural context A Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy By Robert Ian Cullis Faculty of Design, Media and Management Buckinghamshire New University Brunel University April 2010 This copy of the thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it is understood to recognise that its copyright rests with its author under the terms of the United Kingdom Copyright Acts. No quotation from the thesis and no information derived from it may be published without proper acknowledgement. i Abstract Children?s relationships with their physical school: Considerations of primary school architecture and furniture design in a social and cultural context By Robert Ian Cullis In recent years substantial investment has been made to replace or refurbish state schools in England and Wales and, although research has unsuccessfully sought to prove its contribution, the discipline of Design continues to be identified as a facilitator of educational transformation. Results to date, however, are mixed and there is an evident failing at the design briefing stage to understand how children interact with their educational settings and, notably, an avoidance of direct challenge to the primary school classroom and its practice. In response, this thesis asks how the social and cultural study of children?s relationships with their physical school can suggest a meaningful approach to primary school architecture and furniture design. A model of well-being is developed to clarify misused terminology and to present a realistic expectation of design in which the contradictory goals of inclusion and the development of the individual are appraised. Sitting within a diverse grounded methodology, the concept of belonging is then explored as a basis for evaluating the contribution of different aspects of the physical school to children?s well-being. The primary school environments studied were found to limit the possibilities of a child?s well- being. School architecture through to classroom wall displays were complicit in restricting physical and social expression in favour of school organisation and, furthermore, the central child-teacher relationship was found to be unnecessarily devalued by behavioural concerns derived from the setting. By ethically interpreting the rich variety of children?s voices, priorities for what is coined here as child-teacher centred design are established and a clear relationship between architecture and furniture is offered. The thesis recommends that architecture continues to perform a protective classroom role to support objectives of inclusion whilst school furniture supports more affective, individualistic goals through less prescriptive and more varied settings for learning. ii Acknowledgements Fortunately, I have not been alone. I would like to thank Dr Lynn Jones, my first supervisor, for her ongoing support and understanding over the last few years and for encouraging me to embark on a PhD in the first place. Dr Christina Meredith, my second supervisor, has provided insight, intelligence and dedication which have proved invaluable to me. I am extremely grateful for this. I owe a great deal of gratitude to all three schools involved in my primary research. Reflecting now on the education of primary school children, it is a serious subject and this thesis has grown to represent that. Perhaps therefore it is not obvious in the writing but the research has been great fun and having the opportunity to discuss slimy bricks or poisonous ivy or even poorly grandparents with children was a privilege. Whenever I needed to remind myself of what organisation and efficiency was like I could always rely on Debra Harper at Buckinghamshire New University to provide this and, in the closing stages, appreciation is due to Dr William Lishman for guiding me in to land. Two organisations, Creative Partnerships and Hampshire County Council, have provided regular support and opportunities for essential and enlightening discussions at various points in the process. My family has continually supported and encouraged me and has resolutely avoided the, ?So, have you finished it yet?? question. This has helped enormously. As yet I am unaware of advice which suggests unplanned fatherhood contributes to the successful completion of a PhD. However, the richness this has added to my life and the motivation it has inspired mean that I would highly recommend it; I dedicate this thesis to my loves, Margot and Klara. iii Author?s declaration Unless otherwise stated in the text, the work submitted in this thesis is my own. I have necessarily referred to and fully acknowledged the work of others to inform the context and the arguments of this thesis. However, the evaluation of such work and its relevance is entirely my own. No part of the work presented has been submitted in support of a successful or pending application for any other degree or qualification of this or any other University or of any professional or learned body. I confirm that this is a true statement and that, subject to any comments above, the submission is my own original work. iv Table of contents page Chapter 1: Aspirations for a new generation of primary schools .................................. 1 1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1 1.1.1 My intentions .............................................................................................................. 1 1.1.2 Ambitions for a new era of school design ................................................................... 2 1.2 Child-centred schools ? a 2010 perspective ....................................................................... 7 1.3 Interpreting well-being ? developing a literature-based model ....................................... 12 1.3.1 Stage 1: Starting with the Government?s position .................................................... 14 1.3.2 Stage 2: An examination of self-esteem and its school relevance............................ 20 1.3.3 Stage 3: Longer term outcomes and the child?s societal context ............................. 24 1.3.4 Review ....................................................................................................................... 33 1.4 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 35 1.4.1 Assessment of related research methodologies ....................................................... 36 1.4.2 Methodology ............................................................................................................. 37 1.4.3 Thesis structure ......................................................................................................... 41 Chapter 2: The design of schools - A perspective on history ...................................... 43 2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 43 2.1.1 1870-1902 - Victorian Board schools ........................................................................ 44 2.1.2 1902-1945 ? Including open air schools ................................................................... 51 2.1.3 1945 onwards ? Including open plan schools ........................................................... 58 2.1.4 A perspective on today?s new schools ...................................................................... 70 2.2 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 80 Chapter 3: Well-being at school - Children?s views ......................................................... 83 3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 83 3.1.1 The schools involved ................................................................................................. 85 3.1.2 Ethics ......................................................................................................................... 85 v 3.2 Study 1: Good day, bad day .............................................................................................. 86 3.2.1 Aim ............................................................................................................................ 86 3.2.2 Methodology ............................................................................................................. 87 3.2.3 Children?s responses ................................................................................................. 90 3.2.4 Discussion ................................................................................................................ 103 3.3 Summary ......................................................................................................................... 113 Chapter 4: Asking children directly about their physical school environment ...... 116 4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 116 4.2 Study 2: Favourite and least favourite place or feature ................................................. 117 4.2.1 Methodology ........................................................................................................... 117 4.2.2 Participants ............................................................................................................. 117 4.2.3 Standardised instructions ....................................................................................... 117 4.2.4 Evaluation and presentation of the results ............................................................. 118 4.2.5 Findings ................................................................................................................... 118 4.2.6 Discussion ................................................................................................................ 138 4.2.7 Review ..................................................................................................................... 144 4.3 Study 3: Take it or leave it ............................................................................................... 146 4.3.1 Aim and methodology ............................................................................................. 146 4.3.2 Participants ............................................................................................................. 146 4.3.3 Standardised instructions ....................................................................................... 147 4.3.4 Evaluation and presentation of the results ............................................................. 147 4.3.5 Findings ................................................................................................................... 148 4.3.6 Discussion ................................................................................................................ 154 4.3.7 Review ..................................................................................................................... 157 4.4 Implications for the continuation of research ................................................................ 158 4.5 Summary ......................................................................................................................... 161 Chapter 5: In search of belonging ...................................................................................... 163 5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 163 vi 5.1.1 Aim of the belonging studies .................................................................................. 164 5.1.2 Ethics and consent .................................................................................................. 165 5.1.3 Participants ............................................................................................................. 165 5.1.4 The Methodology .................................................................................................... 166 5.2 The studies ...................................................................................................................... 170 5.2.1 Study 4: Identity cards ............................................................................................ 170 5.2.2 Study 5: Class social maps ....................................................................................... 175 5.2.3 Study 6: Good bad happy sad ................................................................................. 180 5.3 Describing the classes ? Year 5 and 6 ............................................................................. 183 5.3.1 School S: Year 5 (Barracudas).................................................................................. 183 5.3.2 School A: Year 5 and 6 (Class 3) .............................................................................. 186 5.4 Year 5 & 6: Social position .............................................................................................. 187 5.5 Year 5 and 6 belonging .................................................................................................... 191 5.5.1 Gender and age ....................................................................................................... 191 5.5.2 Belonging and social position ................................................................................. 194 5.5.3 Behaviour ................................................................................................................ 195 5.5.4 Ability and ability group .......................................................................................... 197 5.5.5 Expressed happiness ............................................................................................... 199 5.5.6 Year 5 and 6: Review ............................................................................................... 200 5.6 A subsequent discussion of chairs and prescription in design ....................................... 201 5.7 Reflections on the methodology ..................................................................................... 206 5.8 Summary ......................................................................................................................... 208 Chapter 6: School features and perspectives on inclusion ........................................ 211 6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 211 6.2 Evaluation of children?s responses ................................................................................. 212 6.2.1 Symbols used .......................................................................................................... 213 6.2.2 Exploring the gate release....................................................................................... 214 6.3 Children?s relationships with symbols of achievement .................................................. 216 vii 6.3.1 The housepoint cup at School A ............................................................................. 216 6.3.2 The trophy at School S ............................................................................................ 218 6.3.3 The Victorian project display at School A ............................................................... 219 6.3.4 Ability group signs ................................................................................................... 221 6.3.5 Review ..................................................................................................................... 224 6.4 Children?s relationships with learning tools ................................................................... 225 6.4.1 The computer keyboard .......................................................................................... 225 6.4.2 Projector.................................................................................................................. 227 6.4.3 The number line at School S ................................................................................... 228 6.4.4 Review ..................................................................................................................... 229 6.5 Children?s relationships with visual rules........................................................................ 230 6.5.1 The School A Charter............................................................................................... 230 6.5.2 The School S Code ................................................................................................... 233 6.5.3 Bullying notice at School S ...................................................................................... 234 6.5.4 Review ..................................................................................................................... 235 6.6 Children?s relationships with traditional design features ............................................... 236 6.6.1 The hall floor at School S ......................................................................................... 236 6.6.2 The juniors playground at School S ......................................................................... 239 6.6.3 The library at School A ............................................................................................ 242 6.6.4 The abacus at School A ........................................................................................... 244 6.6.5 Review ..................................................................................................................... 245 6.7 Children?s relationships with inanimate features ........................................................... 245 6.7.1 The chimney ............................................................................................................ 246 6.7.2 The crocodile step ................................................................................................... 248 6.7.3 The wall vent at School A ........................................................................................ 250 6.7.4 The School S playground wall ................................................................................. 252 6.7.5 Review ..................................................................................................................... 254 6.8 Encouraging inclusion and identity ................................................................................. 255 viii 6.8.1 Identity symbols ...................................................................................................... 255 6.8.2 The crucifix .............................................................................................................. 257 6.8.3 The School S Hands ................................................................................................. 259 6.8.4 The friendship bench .............................................................................................. 261 6.8.5 Review ..................................................................................................................... 264 6.9 Summary ......................................................................................................................... 264 Chapter 7: Discussion - What this means for primary school design ...................... 268 7.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 268 7.2 Expectations of Design .................................................................................................... 269 7.3 Social influences on children?s use of the physical school .............................................. 274 7.3.1 Children?s exertion of territory ............................................................................... 274 7.3.2 The difference between learning spaces and social spaces: A perspective on architecture ............................................................................................................................. 275 7.3.3 Concerns of community .......................................................................................... 278 7.3.4 Review ..................................................................................................................... 279 7.4 Cultural influences on children?s use of the physical school .......................................... 280 7.4.1 Behaviour and achievement ................................................................................... 283 7.4.2 Dependence on the teacher: Belonging and inclusion ........................................... 284 7.4.3 Review ..................................................................................................................... 287 7.5 Conclusion: Priorities of primary school design .............................................................. 288 7.5.1 The relationship between architecture and furniture ............................................ 288 7.5.2 The design brief: Recommendations ...................................................................... 291 7.5.3 How is this approach different from the current programme? .............................. 294 7.6 Evaluation of the thesis ................................................................................................... 296 7.6.1 Contribution of the research................................................................................... 296 7.6.2 Limitations of the research ..................................................................................... 298 7.6.3 Further research...................................................................................................... 300 ix 7.7 Closing remarks ............................................................................................................... 301 References ................................................................................................................................. 302 Appendices ................................................................................................................................. 324 Appendix 1: Exemplar design brief (DfES, 2003b) ....................................................................... 324 Appendix 2: Examples of models of well-being .......................................................................... 339 Appendix 3: School design basics related to the well-being model ............................................ 342 Appendix 4: School profiles ......................................................................................................... 343 Appendix 5: Example of consent form ? School S ....................................................................... 351 Appendix 6: Favourite colours .................................................................................................... 353 Appendix 7: Identity card images, associative ratings and category .......................................... 355 Appendix 8: Calculation of belonging ......................................................................................... 367 Appendix 9: Developing a class social map ................................................................................. 371 Appendix 10: Belonging studies - Year 1 & 2 ................................................................................ 373 Appendix 11: Recognition and understanding results .............................................................. 390 x List of figures Chapter 1: Aspirations for a new generation of primary schools page Figure 1-1 Observations of a persistent educational form. Photograph. Source: Design Council (2005) .................................................................................................................................................. 4 Figure 1-2 Initial representation of the child-centred spectrum. Developed by the author ............ 10 Figure 1-3 The dual responsibilities of schools and their relationship ? further representation of child-centred interests. Developed by the author ............................................................................ 11 Figure 1-4 First iteration of the well-being model: Enjoyment and economic well-being compared. Developed by the author .................................................................................................................. 16 Figure 1-5 The well-being model: interpreting the five outcomes. Developed by author ............... 17 Figure 1-6 The well-being model: interpreting the five outcomes (Continued). Developed by author................................................................................................................................................ 19 Figure 1-7 The well-being model (Continued). Developed by author .............................................. 23 Figure 1-8 The well-being model (Continued). Developed by author .............................................. 26 Figure 1-9 The well-being model (Continued). Developed by author .............................................. 30 Figure 1-10 The well-being model (Continued). Developed by author ............................................ 32 Figure 1-11 Contributors to well-being in the present: a focus for affective school design. Developed by author ........................................................................................................................ 34 Chapter 2: The design of schools - A perspective on history Figure 2-1 Bonner Street primary school, Tower Hamlets, London. Photograph: Graham Turner. Source: Weaver (2006) ..................................................................................................................... 47 Figure 2-2 Replication of typical bench and desk furniture of the Board schools. Photograph. Source: http://www.danum-photos.co.uk/pages/beamish_board_school.htm ............................. 48 Figure 2-3 Robson's nursery design illustrating the marching area. Source: Robson (1877) ........... 50 Figure 2-4 Duiker's open air school Amsterdam 1930. Photograph. Source: http://www.columbia.edu/cu/gsapp/BT/EEI/HEATLOAD/heatload.html ........................................ 52 Figure 2-5 Uffculme open air school 1911. Photograph. Source: Chatelet (2008) ........................... 54 xi Figure 2-6 Contrasts in the use of open air schools in Birmingham 1911. Photograph. Source: Wilmot & Saul (1998) and St James? Park, London 1934. Photograph. Source: http://arts.guardian.co.uk/pictures/image/0,8543,-10204514616,00.html .................................... 55 Figure 2-7 Impington Village College 1936-39. Architect: Walter Gropius & Maxwell Fry. Photograph. Source: http://www.overgrownpath.com/2007_11_01_archive.html ....................... 57 Figure 2-8 Eveline Lowe School (1964-66) and proposed refurbishment. Architect: David and Mary Medd (original) and HKR Architects (refurbishment). Photograph. Source: http://www.london- se1.co.uk/news/view/3423 .............................................................................................................. 60 Figure 2-9 Hunstanton School 1954. Architect: Alison and Peter Smithson. Photograph: John Maltby. Source: RIBA Library Photographs Collection ...................................................................... 61 Figure 2-10 Haggerston School 1964-65. Architect: Ern? Goldfinger. Photograph: Kit Reynolds. Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/kitreno/257500056/ .......................................................... 62 Figure 2-11 Plan view of Finmere School (1959) indicating the intricacy of design. Architect: David and Mary Medd. Photograph. Source: http://www.bodders.org/finmere ...................................... 63 Figure 2-12 Child-sized chairs 1946. Photograph. Source: Institute of Education ........................... 66 Figure 2-13 Open plan school. Photograph. Source: Waterhouse (1972) ........................................ 67 Figure 2-14 The QPod. Designer: Stage Systems. Photograph. Source: Greany (2005) ................. ..75 Figure 2-15 Orbital 2002. Designer: Azumi with keen. Photograph. Source: http://www.isisconcepts.co.uk/educational_solutions/tables/isis_orbital_workstation.html ....... 75 Figure 2-16 St Francis of Assisi Primary School 2003. Architect: Studio E. Photograph. Source: http://www.studioe.co.uk/futureclass.html# .................................................................................. 79 Chapter 3: Well-being at school - Children?s views Figure 3-1 A conversation with Christopher at School B .................................................................. 84 Figure 3-2 A good day at School A .................................................................................................... 89 Figure 3-3 A bad day at School A ...................................................................................................... 89 Figure 3-4 A good day at school - Kayleigh ....................................................................................... 96 Figure 3-5 A bad day at school - Kayleigh ......................................................................................... 97 Figure 3-6 Not being allowed to play - School S ............................................................................... 99 Figure 3-7 Bad weather, bad day - School S ................................................................................... 100 Figure 3-8 Contributors to well-being at school ? Children?s perspectives ? School S and A ........ 105 xii Figure 3-9 An exercise investigating the supportive culture children wanted in school ................ 106 Figure 3-10 School B mushroom heads - exertion of culture on design ........................................ 108 Chapter 4: Asking children directly about their physical school environment Figure 4-1 The importance of the outdoors - Shannon .................................................................. 118 Figure 4-2 Depiction of friends in the playground - Leisha............................................................. 120 Figure 4-3 Competition and play in Josh's favourite place ............................................................. 121 Figure 4-4 The assembly hall at School S - Tanya ........................................................................... 122 Figure 4-5 Homework and ability group signs ................................................................................ 123 Figure 4-6 The outdoors ? The Barracudas at School S .................................................................. 124 Figure 4-7 Portrayal of the headteacher's office - School S ........................................................... 127 Figure 4-8 The library at School S ................................................................................................... 127 Figure 4-9 Playground markings - School A .................................................................................... 129 Figure 4-10 Playground markings - the compass - School A ........................................................... 130 Figure 4-11 Least favourite place or feature - classroom tables - School A Year 1 & 2 .................. 132 Figure 4-12 Headteacher's office at School A ................................................................................. 132 Figure 4-13 Straightforward rationale for choosing the playground - Harry ................................. 134 Figure 4-14 The teacher in the classroom - Melanie ...................................................................... 135 Figure 4-15 The classroom computer - Lewis ................................................................................. 136 Figure 4-16 The toilets at School A ................................................................................................. 136 Figure 4-17 Unhappiness in the playground - School A .................................................................. 138 Figure 4-18 Playground markings at School A ................................................................................ 157 Figure 4-19 Belonging ? central to the well-being model .............................................................. 160 Chapter 5: In search of belonging Figure 5-1 Likert Scales used for feelings or perceptions of ability and behaviour, with its associated rating used in the analysis............................................................................................. 169 Figure 5-2 Example of Identity Card Image of the logo on the Canopy outside the Year 1/2 classroom (Inset) ............................................................................................................................. 171 Figure 5-3 The School S Code.......................................................................................................... 174 xiii Figure 5-4 Example: Beth?s Likert Scale Selection for the School S Code ....................................... 174 Figure 5-5 Rating of the School S Code - Cultural, social and functional/aesthetic ....................... 175 Figure 5-6 Example of social chart completed by each child and the numerical rating associated with each position ........................................................................................................................... 177 Figure 5-7 Graphical representation of class social circle ? splitting into thirds ............................ 179 Figure 5-8 Good, Bad, Happy, Sad - completed ability/behaviour page ........................................ 182 Figure 5-9 School S Year 5 Social Circle .......................................................................................... 183 Figure 5-10 School S Year 5 Social Circle ? by gender .................................................................... 184 Figure 5-11 School A Year 5 & 6 Social Circle ................................................................................. 186 Figure 5-12 School A Year 5 & 6 Social Circle ? by gender ............................................................. 187 Figure 5-13 School S Year 5 girls - School context measures related to the social circle ............... 188 Figure 5-14 School A Year 5 & 6 girls - School context measures related to the social circle ........ 189 Figure 5-15 School A Year 5 & 6 boys - School context measures related to the social circle ....... 190 Figure 5-16 School S Year 5 boys - School context measures related to the social circle .............. 190 Figure 5-17 Belonging Index for School S Yr 5 girls shown for those with high, medium and low belonging broken down by cultural, aesthetic/functional and social physical aspects of school .. 191 Figure 5-18 Belonging Index for School A Yr 5 & 6 girls shown for those with high, medium and low belonging broken down by cultural, aesthetic/functional and social physical aspects of school .. 192 Figure 5-19 Belonging Index for School S Yr 5 boys shown for those with high, medium and low belonging broken down by cultural, aesthetic/functional and social physical aspects of school .. 193 Figure 5-20 Belonging Index for School A Yr 5 & 6 boys shown for those with high, medium and low belonging broken down by cultural, aesthetic/functional and social physical aspects of school ........................................................................................................................................................ 193 Figure 5-21 Belonging Index in relation to girls? and boys? social positions - Year 5 & 6 ............... 194 Figure 5-22 Belonging Index based on child's perception of behaviour (High, medium and low) Year 5 & 6 ........................................................................................................................................ 195 Figure 5-23 Belonging Index related to the teacher's perception of the child's behaviour (High, Medium & Low) - Year 5 & 6 ........................................................................................................... 196 xiv Figure 5-24 Belonging Index for School S Yr 5 girls shown for those perceived by the teachers as exhibiting high, medium and low behaviour broken down by cultural, aesthetic/functional and social physical aspects of school ..................................................................................................... 197 Figure 5-25 Belonging Index in relation to the child?s perceptions of ability - Year 5 & 6 ............. 198 Figure 5-26 Belonging Index in relation to the teacher?s perceptions of child?s ability - Year 5 & 6 ........................................................................................................................................................ 198 Figure 5-27 Belonging Index by Ability Group Year 5 & 6 ............................................................... 199 Figure 5-28 Belonging by Expressed Happiness Learning (High, Medium, Low) Year 5 & 6 .......... 200 Figure 5-29 The Learning Island - influence of design on teachers? perceptions of children. 2006. Designer: R Cullis. Photograph. Source: Author ............................................................................. 204 Figure 5-30 School S reception mirror ............................................................................................ 207 Chapter 6: School features and perspectives on inclusion Figure 6-1 Symbols reflecting children's responses against a Likert scale of 1 to 5 ....................... 213 Figure 6-2 The gate release button - School A ................................................................................ 214 Figure 6-3 The housepoint cup - School A ...................................................................................... 216 Figure 6-4 Trophy at School S ......................................................................................................... 218 Figure 6-5 The Victorian project display in Class 3 - School A ........................................................ 219 Figure 6-6 Ability group sign - Year 1 & 2 - School A ...................................................................... 221 Figure 6-7 ?To read using expression and looking at the punctuation? - Learning group sign at School S ........................................................................................................................................... 223 Figure 6-8 Computer keyboard in the Turtles classroom at School A ............................................ 225 Figure 6-9 The whiteboard projector at School A........................................................................... 227 Figure 6-10 The number line at School S ........................................................................................ 228 Figure 6-11 The School A Charter ................................................................................................... 230 Figure 6-12 The School S Code........................................................................................................ 233 Figure 6-13 The bullying notice at School S .................................................................................... 234 Figure 6-14 The hall floor at School S ............................................................................................. 237 Figure 6-15 The Juniors' playground at School S ............................................................................ 239 Figure 6-16 The abacus at School A ................................................................................................ 244 xv Figure 6-17 The chimney at School A ............................................................................................. 246 Figure 6-18 The crocodile step at School A .................................................................................... 248 Figure 6-19 The wall vent in the playground - School A ................................................................. 251 Figure 6-20 The playground wall at School S .................................................................................. 253 Figure 6-21 School badge and cardigan - School A ......................................................................... 256 Figure 6-22 The School S school logo ............................................................................................. 257 Figure 6-23 The crucifix in the hall way at School A ....................................................................... 258 Figure 6-24 The School S Hands ...................................................................................................... 259 Figure 6-25 The friendship bench - School A .................................................................................. 261 Chapter 7: Discussion - What this means for primary school design Figure 7-1 The well-being model ? affective focus of design (boxed area) showing daily outcomes ........................................................................................................................................................ 270 Figure 7-2 Classroom of the Future? Comparison with 1970s' design. Photograph. Source: 1,3 & 4 - Studio E; 2 - Saint (1987) ................................................................................................................. 272 Figure 7-3 Unhappiness in the playground - School A .................................................................... 276 Figure 7-4 A sophisticated physical environment in support of school organisation. Photograph. Source: Author ................................................................................................................................ 281 Figure 7-5 Unprompted physical choices in learning situations. Photograph. Source: Author ..... 290 Figure 7-6 The same design intention results in different use in different schools. Photograph. Source: Author ................................................................................................................................ 291 Appendices Figure A2-1 Examples of variations of models and perspectives of well-being .............................339 Figure A3-1 Basics of school design contributing to well-being ..................................................... 342 Figure A6-1 Boys? and Girls? colour preferences KS1 ? indicates number of children by colour choice .............................................................................................................................................. 353 Figure A6-2 Boys' and Girls' Colour preferences KS2 - indicates number of children by colour choice .............................................................................................................................................. 354 Figure A6-3 Boys' and Girls' Colour preferences KS1 and KS2 - indicates number of children by colour choice ................................................................................................................................... 354 xvi Figure A7-1 Identity cards, associative ratings and category - School S Year 1 & 2 ....................... 355 Figure A7-2 Identity cards, associative ratings and category - School S Year 5.............................. 358 Figure A7-3 Identity cards, associative ratings and category - School A Year 1 & 2 ...................... 361 Figure A7-4 Identity cards, associative ratings and category - School A Year 5 & 6 ...................... 364 Figure A8-1 Rating of Image 1 - Cultural, social and functional/aesthetic ..................................... 367 Figure A8-2 Rating of Image 2 - Cultural, social and functional/aesthetic ..................................... 367 Figure A8-3 Example: Beth's Recognition and Understanding Level for The School S Code.......... 369 Figure A9-1 Collating the children's social maps ............................................................................ 371 Figure A10-1 Whole class social circle - School S Year 1 & 2 .......................................................... 373 Figure A10-2 Class social circles - gender comparisons - School S Year 1 & 2 ................................ 374 Figure A10-3 Whole class social circle - School A Year 1 & 2 ......................................................... 375 Figure A10-4 Class social circles - gender comparisons ? School A Year 1 & 2 .............................. 376 Figure A10-5 School S Year 1 & 2 girls - School context measures related to the social circle ...... 378 Figure A10-6 School A Year 1 & 2 girls - School context measures related to the social circle ..... 378 Figure A10-7 School S Year 1 & 2 boys - School context measures related to the social circle ..... 379 Figure A10-8 School A Year 1 & 2 boys - School context measures related to the social circle ..... 380 Figure A10-9 Belonging Index for School S Yr 1 & 2 girls shown for those with high, medium and low belonging broken down by cultural, aesthetic/functional and social physical aspects of school ........................................................................................................................................................ 381 Figure A10-10 Belonging Index for School A Yr 1 & 2 girls shown for those with high, medium and low belonging broken down by cultural, aesthetic/functional and social physical aspects of school ........................................................................................................................................................ 382 Figure A10-11 Belonging Index for School S Yr 1 & 2 boys shown for those with high, medium and low belonging broken down by cultural, aesthetic/functional and social physical aspects of school - Year 1 & 2 ...................................................................................................................................... 383 Figure A10-12 Belonging Index for School A Yr 1 & 2 boys shown for those with high, medium and low belonging broken down by cultural, aesthetic/functional and social physical aspects of school - Year 1 & 2 ...................................................................................................................................... 383 Figure A10-13 Belonging Index compared with social position ..................................................... 384 xvii Figure A10-14 Belonging Index in relation to a child's perceived behaviour (High, medium or low) - Year 1 & 2 ........................................................................................................................................ 385 Figure A10-15 Belonging Index in relation to a teacher's perception of the child's behaviour (High, medium or low) - Year 1 & 2 ........................................................................................................... 386 Figure A10-16 Belonging Index for School A boys considered by the teacher to be of High, Medium or Low behaviour broken down by cultural, aesthetic/functional and social physical aspects of school - Year 1 & 2 ......................................................................................................................... 387 Figure A10-17 Belonging Index in relation to expressed happiness learning (High, medium or low) - Year 1 & 2 ...................................................................................................................................... 387 Figure A10-18 Girls? Belonging Index associated with High, Medium and Low ability groups - School A and School S Year 1&2 ..................................................................................................... 388 Figure A11-1 Observation and recognition percentage across the social circle - Year 1 & 2 ......... 390 Figure A11-2 Observation and recognition percentage across the social circle - Year 5 & 6 ......... 390 Figure A11-3 Belonging Index by High, medium and low recognition and understanding - Year 1 & 2 ...................................................................................................................................................... 391 Figure A11-4 Belonging Index by High, medium and low recognition and understanding - Year 5 & 6 ...................................................................................................................................................... 391 xviii List of tables Chapter 1: Aspirations for a new generation of primary schools page Table 1-1 Key Stages - England and Wales. Source: HM Government (2009) .................................. 15 Chapter 3: Well-being at school - Children?s views Table 3-1 A good day at School A Year 1 & 2 .................................................................................... 91 Table 3-2 A bad day at School A Year 1 & 2 ...................................................................................... 92 Table 3-3 A good day at School A Year 5 & 6 .................................................................................... 94 Table 3-4 A bad day at School A Year 5 & 6 ...................................................................................... 95 Table 3-5 A good day at School S Year 1 & 2 .................................................................................... 98 Table 3-6 A bad day at School S Year 1 & 2 ...................................................................................... 99 Table 3-7 A good day at School S Year 5 ......................................................................................... 101 Table 3-8 A bad day at School S Year 5 ........................................................................................... 102 Chapter 4: Asking children directly about their physical school environment Table 4-1 Favourite places or features - School S Year 1 & 2 ......................................................... 119 Table 4-2 Reasons for favourite places or features - School S Year 1 & 2 ...................................... 119 Table 4-3 Least favourite places or features- School S Year 1 & 2 ................................................. 121 Table 4-4 Reasons for least favourite places or features - School S Year 1 & 2 ............................. 123 Table 4-5 Favourite places or features - School S Year 5 ................................................................ 124 Table 4-6 Reasons for favourite places or features - School S Year 5 ............................................ 125 Table 4-7 Least favourite places or features - School S Year 5 ....................................................... 126 Table 4-8 Reasons for least favourite places or features - School S Year 5 .................................... 126 Table 4-9 Favourite places or features - School A Year 1 & 2 ......................................................... 128 Table 4-10 Reasons for favourite places or features - School A Year 1 & 2 ................................... 128 Table 4-11 Least favourite places or features - School A Year 1 & 2 .............................................. 131 Table 4-12 Reasons for least favourite places or features - School A Year 1 & 2 ........................... 131 Table 4-13 Favourite places or features - School A Year 5 & 6 ....................................................... 133 Table 4-14 Reasons for favourite places or features - School A Year 5 & 6 ................................... 134 xix Table 4-15 Least favourite places or features - School A Year 5 & 6 .............................................. 137 Table 4-16 Reasons for least favourite places or features - School A Year 5 & 6 ........................... 137 Table 4-17 Top ten items that children would take and the top 3 reasons given for each item ... 148 Table 4-18 Top ten reasons why children chose to take items and the top 3 items relating to each reason ............................................................................................................................................. 149 Table 4-19 Top ten items that children would leave and reasons given ........................................ 151 Table 4-20 Top ten reasons why children chose to leave items and the top 3 items relating to each ........................................................................................................................................................ 152 Table 4-21 Top 3 categories of items that boys and girls would like to take ................................. 154 Table 4-22 Top 3 categories of items that boys and girls would like to leave ................................ 154 Chapter 5: In search of belonging Table 5-1 Relationship types based upon Simon and Lucy's respective ratings of each other ...... 180 Chapter 6: School features and perspectives on inclusion Table 6-1 Identification with the gate release button by High, Medium and Low belonging - Year 1 & 2 - School A .................................................................................................................................. 215 Table 6-2 Identification with the Housepoint Cup across the social circle - Year 5 & 6 Boys and Girls - School A ................................................................................................................................ 217 Table 6-3 The Victorian display - Belonging by Gender - Year 5 & 6 - School A ............................. 220 Table 6-4 Identification with the ability group sign by High, Medium and Low ability group - Year 1 & 2 - School A ................................................................................................................................. 222 Table 6-5 Identification with the learning group sign by High, Medium and Low belonging - Year 1 & 2 - School A .................................................................................................................................. 223 Table 6-6 Identification with the computer keyboard by High, Medium and Low child?s perceived ability - Year 1 & 2 ? School A ......................................................................................................... 226 Table 6-7 Identification with the keyboard by High, Medium and Low belonging boys and girls - Year 1 & 2 - School A ...................................................................................................................... 227 Table 6-8 Identification with the number line by High, Medium and Low belonging boys and girls - Year 5 - School S ............................................................................................................................. 229 Table 6-9 The Charter - Belonging by Gender - Year 5 & 6 - School A ............................................ 232 xx Table 6-10 Boys? Identification with the Charter by High, Medium and Low perceived behaviour (by teacher) - Year 5 & 6 - School A ................................................................................................ 232 Table 6-11 Identification with the School S Code by High, Medium and Low belonging boys and girls - Year 5 - School S ................................................................................................................... 234 Table 6-12 Identification with the hall floor by High, Medium and Low belonging boys and girls - Year 5 - School S ............................................................................................................................. 238 Table 6-13 Identification with the hall floor across the social circle - Year 5 Boys and Girls - School S ....................................................................................................................................................... 238 Table 6-14 Identification with the Juniors? playground across the social circle - Year 5 Boys and Girls - School S ................................................................................................................................. 240 Table 6-15 Identification with the Juniors? playground by High, Medium and Low belonging boys and girls - Year 5 - School S ............................................................................................................ 242 Table 6-16 Identification with the library by High, Medium and Low perceived behaviour and ability (by the teacher) - Year 1 & 2 ? School A .............................................................................. 243 Table 6-17 Identification with the library by High, Medium and Low perceived behaviour (Boys) and ability (Girls) (child & teacher) - Year 5 & 6 ? School A ............................................................ 244 Table 6-18 Identification with the chimney across the social circle - Year 5 & 6 Boys and Girls ? School A .......................................................................................................................................... 247 Table 6-19 Identification with the chimney by High, Medium and Low expressed happiness around school - Year 5 & 6 - School A ........................................................................................................ 247 Table 6-20 Identification with the crocodile step across the social circle - Year 1/2 Boys and Girls ? School A .......................................................................................................................................... 249 Table 6-21 Identification with the crocodile step by High, Medium and Low belonging boys and girls - Year 1 & 2 - School A ............................................................................................................ 250 Table 6-22 Identification with the wall vent by High, Medium and Low belonging - Boys - Year 1 & 2 - School A ..................................................................................................................................... 252 Table 6-23 Identification with Manfred the Bear by High, Medium and Low belonging boys and girls - Year 1 & 2 - School S ............................................................................................................. 255 Table 6-24 The school badge - Belonging by Gender - Year 5 & 6 - School A ................................. 256 Table 6-25 Identification with the crucifix by High, Medium and Low perceived behaviour (child) - Year 1 & 2 - School A ...................................................................................................................... 259 xxi Table 6-26 Identification with the School S Hands by High, Medium and Low belonging boys and girls - Year 5 - School S ................................................................................................................... 260 Table 6-27 Identification with the friendship bench across the social circle - Year 5 & 6 Boys and Girls - School A ................................................................................................................................ 263 Table 6-28 The friendship bench - Belonging by Gender - Year 5 & 6 - School A ........................... 263 Appendices Table A8-1 Belonging Results as a percentage and index for Beth, Simon, and Marcus in relation to the Cultural, Social, and Functional/Aesthetic School .................................................................... 369 xxii List of abbreviations BCSE British Council for School Environments BSF Building Schools for the Future CABE Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment FPF Favourite Place or Feature (Primary study ? Chapter 4) GBHS Good Bad Happy Sad (Primary study ? Chapter 5) GDBD Good Day Bad Day (Primary study ? Chapter 3) PCP Primary Capital Programme PEL Practical Equipment Ltd PWC PricewaterhouseCoopers RIBA Royal Institute of British Architects TIOLI Take it or Leave it (Primary study ? Chapter 4) 1 Chapter 1: Aspirations for a new generation of primary schools 1.1 Introduction O f all the pro je c t s an archite c t can be aske d to design, no ne can be mo re inte re st ing and challe nging than the schoo l ? in which the mo st im po rt ant of hum an activ it ie s, the educat io n and deve lo pm e nt of our childre n, take s place (Law so n, 200 0 , p.v ii) . 1.1.1 My intentions In this thesis I quest io n how the study of childre n?s relat io nships with their phy sic al schoo l env iro nm e nt in a so cial and cult ural co nt e xt can sugge st a meaningful appro ac h to prim ary scho o l archit e c t ure and furnit ure design . Why might this enquiry be im po rt ant ? A head teache r claim s that hav ing ? a wo nde rful spo rts hall and to ilet s has im pro ve d self - e ste em (DfES, 200 6a, p.4 5 ) ; ? i nnoc uo us perhaps but this care fully sele c te d com me nt in the Go ve rnme nt ?s Every Child Matters policy do cum e nt raise s quest io ns which are pert ine nt to the design of tomo rrow ?s schoo ls and its asso c iate d frust rat io ns. The Go ve rnme n t cert ainly aspire s to new schoo ls in which the phy sic al env iro nm e nt pro vo ke s a po sit ive psy cho lo gic al im pac t (Miliband, 2003 ) , but can design ho ne st ly claim to hav e such an im me diat e and dire ct co nse que nc e ? I am intrigue d by the exte nt to which the physic al scho o l env iro nm e nt , and hence its designe r, can realist ic ally claim to effe ct last ing state s of mind. I have prev io usly addre sse d the dev e lo pme nt of creat iv it y , which Craft (20 05 ) ident ifie s to be a quality cent ral to the Gov e rnm e nt ?s pursuit of inte lle c t ual capit al in a glo bal eco nom y , by adapt ing the phy sic al env iro nm e nt in which childre n learn. Despit e know ing that the result ant furnit ure was po pular with both the childr e n and the teache rs, that it was new and adde d variet y in a very predic t able and uniform classroo m env iro nm e nt , I quest io ne d whet he r, thro ugh design, I had change d the way the childre n think or creat e . I do ubte d it. Perso nally I lacke d an underst anding of ho w childre n inte rac t phy sic ally and psycho lo gic ally with schoo l env iro nm e nts and, mo re fundam e nt ally , how this is influe nc e d by the culture , tradit io ns and obje ct iv es of scho o ls. Subse que nt ly , I hav e ident ifie d the same abse nce of aware ne ss in brie fs fo r the new scho o ls curre nt ly being designe d and built as part of Building Schools for the Future (BSF) and the Primary Capital Programme (P CP ) . 2 Higgins , Hall, Wall, Woo lner & McCaughey (200 5 ) maint ain that the basic s of scho o l design such as air qualit y , day light ing and ergo nom ic issue s of com fo rt , fo r exam ple , are co nt ribut o ry to childre n?s outcom es at scho o l; ho wev e r, my inte nt io n is to offe r rese arc h exam ining the mo re am bit io us go als of design in schoo ls. By study ing the p sy cho lo gic al result s which are aspire d to , such as self - e st eem and inclusio n (D fES, 200 3 b) , the aim is to assist a designer embark ing on the design of a child- centred school which, as Darling (1994 ) no te s, mo re affec t ive scho o ls are com mo nly know n. In othe r wo rds this thesis plans to info rm the design brie f by recomm e nding new way s to co nside r design; it is no t , howev e r, a n exerc ise in design itse lf. Base d on the findings of the Comm issio n fo r Archite c ture and the Built Env iro nme nt (CABE, 2006 ) , i nit ial ev aluat io n of our new scho o ls is no t pro m ising , yet these judgme nt s are arguably base d on measure s refle c t ing the sam e lack of know le dge which im pe de s design in the first place . Mo re ov e r, irre spe c t iv e of the lack of clarit y, maj o r funding has bro ught calls fo r transfo rm at io n in Educat io n in which techno lo gy , as Pierso n (200 5 ) describe s, can be regarde d as a panac e a replac ing the unfulfille d ro le of archit ec t ure in the last majo r ro und of prim ary scho o l building (Benne t t , 1980 ) . On balance , howev e r, Bro gde n (20 07) rem ark s that m ainst re am Educat io n do es no t fare well with who le sale change and speculat io n abo ut where Educat io n is going com bine d with an appare nt denial of what it curre nt ly is, I will argue , are ham pe ring pro gress as it is curre nt ly co nce ive d . The rese arc h prese nte d in this thesis is there fo re co nce rne d with unde rst anding childre n in the mainst re am prim ary schoo l sett ings of to day and inte grat ing design with the bro ade r social and cult ural co nce rns of Educatio n. Furt he rm o re I reco gnise that the physic al schoo l exte nd s bey o nd archit e c t ure and furnit ure to encom pass a plet ho ra of to ys, pict ure s, rule rs, notice s, crucifix e s, brick s, patte rns and co at ho oks, fo r exam ple ; I co nside r their relat io nship with the tradit io nal fo cus of schoo l design and their co m bine d co nt ribut ion to the child?s schoo l experie nc e . In this chapt e r I will co nside r the aspirat io ns for childre n in their new schoo ls and ho w these can be co nce ive d, thro ugh the dev e lo pme nt of a mo de l of well - be ing, as realist ic design obje c t iv es. This dire c t s the ov era ll metho do lo gy and thesis struc ture discusse d at the end of this chapt e r. 1.1.2 Ambitions for a new era of school design T he rese arc h is tim e ly . Within the last fiv e years the Go ve rnme nt has em bark e d upo n two majo r schoo l building pro grammes which seek to replace or refurbish the majo rity of prim ary and seco ndary schoo ls in England and Wale s (Teac he rne t , 200 8 ) . This invo lv e s co nside rable sum s; Burr (20 09 ) estim at es BSF alo ne at betw ee n ?52 bn and ?55 b n whilst PCP , inv o lv ing mo re 3 refurbishm e nt and co ve ring ro ughly half of the prim ary scho o ls, is expe ct e d to cost ?7 billio n (Inside Gov e rnm e nt , 200 9 ) . The replacem e nt of schoo ls on this scale is a rare oppo rt unit y which, acco rd ing to Dude k (2000 ) , prese nt s itse lf ro ughly once ev ery 35 years and, as a co nse que nce , carrie s with it a co nside rable weight of expe c tat io n. The archit e c t Feilde n describe d this as an ? ext rao rdinary oppo rt unit y to im prov e the educat io n of future gene rat io ns (CABE , 2004 , p.4 ). ? The anno unce me nt was roun dly welcom e d and co nside re d lo ng overdue by many (Clark , 2002 ) , refle c t ing a wide ly held view that Brit ish schoo ls ?are large ly repre se ntat ive of our past , no t our future (BCSE , 2007 , p.5) .? There fo re , an exte nsive scho o l building pro gramm e wo uld seem to be an oppo rt unit y fo r teache rs, with the assist anc e of brand new facilit ie s, to do what they curre nt ly do but even bette r. Howeve r, while the Brit ish Co unc il fo r Schoo l Env iro nm e nt s (BCSE ) indic at es that our schoo l buildings are old, it equally infe rs that they are educat io nally outdat e d and ill- e quippe d to suppo rt no tions of 21 s t Cent ury Educat ion. Such ideas ackno w le dge that the liv es our childre n will lead wo uld be unre c o gnisable to the Victo rian child yet, as Hargre ave s (199 4 ) po int s out, the educat io nal sett ing is curre nt ly alm ost ident ic al. Transfo rm at io n is a wide ly us ed term (Gilbe rt , 2006 ; Heppe ll, Chapman, Millw oo d, Co nstable & Furne ss , 2004 ; Page , 200 8 ) w hich Caldw e ll (20 06 ) describe s as ?signific ant, syst emat ic and sust aine d change that result s in high leve ls of achie vem e nt by all stude nt s in all sett ings (p.6) .? Ho wev e r, while its definit ion is helpful, educat io nal pract ic e is perce ive d to hav e been fundam e nt ally imm une to such transfo rm at io n and relat iv e ly stat ic fo r mo re than a hundre d years. The classroom : ........a t every stage of its dev e lo pm e nt wo uld be im me diat e ly fam iliar to any teache r since 187 6 . T hro ugho ut, the co mm o n expe rie nc e of a single teache r inte ract ing with a gro up of childre n in the pursuit of learning rem ains the enduring charac t e rist ic of that co nfine d and priv at e space that we know as the classroom (Gardne r, 1998 , p.3 5 ) . No t ably , Caldw e ll (20 06 ) ackno w le dge s that transfo rmat io n, as he has define d it, has only ever been part ially achiev e d. The persist e nt and fam iliar lo ok of scho o ls has been im plic ate d in this lack of pro gre ss. Crit ic s, su ch as Greany (200 5) and Dude k (20 00 ) , bemo a n the phy sic al fo rm of the Vict orian Bo ard schoo ls who se cent ral hall and surro unding classrooms, they claim , reinfo rce an antiquat e d 4 pedago gy and hav e endured any fundame nt al challe nge since that time . This argum e nt is clearly illust rat e d in Figure 1 - 1 . 1905 1950 2004 Figure 1-1 Observations of a persistent educational form. Photograph. Source: Design Council (2005) T he classroom is gene rally co nside re d the basic com po ne nt of tradit io nal schoo l design and with the focus on transfo rm at ion, it is curre nt ly view e d as a pariah, exist ing as a suppo rt , and being suppo rt e d by, curre nt retro spe ct iv e teaching pract ice (Dude k, 2000 ) . Cert ainly the im plic at io n is that scho o ls base d on the classroo m fo rm at are someho w ho lding educat io n back and furt he r crit ic ism persist s of the ro te learning cult ure which Greany (200 5) and Hert zbe rge r (200 8 ) argue are sym bo lise d and enge nde re d by rowe d seco ndary scho o l classroo m s , fo r example . Meanw hile , the purpo se of the capital inve stm e nt in scho o ls is to suppo rt a cult ural shift in Educat io n away from such pract ic e; Gibbo ns (Gre any , 200 5 ) , represe nt ing the Design Co unc il?s Learning Env iro nm e nt s Cam paign, explains: . .... this go ve rnme nt is comm it te d to creat ing a very diffe re nt educat io n syst em - a perso nalise d syst em that engage s the curio sity an d dev e lo ps the tale nt s of all our yo ung peo ple so that they achieve their po te nt ial (p.11 ) . Where childre n were once co nside re d a homo ge no us gro up, which is arguably refle c t e d stro ngly in the archite c t ure an d the furnit ure of schoo ls sho w n in Figure 1 - 1 , Educat io n now seeks to treat each child as an indiv idual and perso nalise their deve lo pme nt acco rdingly ; this, Gilbe rt (200 6 ) claim s, will enhanc e children?s ? pro gre ss, achie v eme nt and part ic ipat io n (p.3 ) .? Oste nsibly this is a highly inco nt ro ve rt ible and appe aling pro posit io n in what is gene rally describe d as a child - c e nt re d 5 appro ac h, altho ugh the Gov e rnm e nt dist anc e s itse lf fro m the hist o ric al co nno tat io ns of this term (BECT A, 2009 ) . Perso nalise d learning is a pedago gy; on the othe r hand child - c e nt re d schoo ls arguably repre se nt the bro ade r cult ure nece ssary to suppo rt it, encom pass ing a philo so phic al tradit io n which Nicho lso n (20 05 ) ident ifie s as many cent urie s old. Relev ant ly , van Harme le n (1998 ) make s a sim ilar dist inct io n betwe e n the term s child - c e ntre d and learne r- c e nt re d, altho ugh reco gnising a large overlap of territo ry . The co nt inuing pursuit of child - c e nt re d schoo ls, I sugge st , furt he r expo se s the com ple x ity of the demands place d upo n design by ente rt aining mo re div e rse affe c t iv e obje ct ive s linke d to , but beyo nd, perso nalised learning. There fo re as a natio n we may desire new inclusive scho o ls designe d to inspire and pro mo te self - e st ee m b ut, fro m a design or educat io nal perspe ct ive , what do es this actually mean , a nd can it really be translate d inte lligibly into phy sic al schoo l enviro nme nt s? Arguably uninfo rme d, the language of design beco mes inhibit ing rathe r than helpful, and expo se s an abse nc e of clarit y co m bine d with a perce iv e d lack of expe rie nc e; right ly , Go ddard comm e nt s that ?We?re no t go ing to get what we want by ment ioning ?transfo rm at io n? 11 tim e s in a spee c h (Tick le, 2008 , p.2 5 ) .? Heppell also expre sse s a gene ral lack of co nfide nc e in the abilit y of design to deliv e r 21 s t Cent ury Schoo ls: ?....de signing a ro om fo r learning is very com ple x . No one know s ho w to prev e nt ?learning - lo ss? when yo u design a roo m ?pedago gic ally ? , whereas we know lo ts abo ut designing fo r minim um heat lo ss (Higgins et al., 2005 , p.3) .? Design typic ally begins with a brie f, a detaile d outline of what is neede d and why; ofte n it is expre sse d as a design pro ble m to be so lv e d and Phillips (20 04 ) argues that the brie f sho uld include what is know n about this pro ble m . I maint ain that the schoo l design brie fs, in a clim ate of unce rt aint y , offe r designe rs mixe d messa ge s. In 200 3 the Gov e rnm e nt inv it e d a num be r of archit ec ts to pro duc e exem plar designs; their purpo se to info rm and lead the pro gramm e fo r both prim ary and seco ndary schoo ls (DfES, 200 3 a) . The prim ary design brie f, of which Part s 1 and 2 are prov ide d in Appe ndix 1, is part ic ularly rev e aling. On the one hand the brie f reflec t s the aspi rat io nal wo rds of Blair (2004 ) and Mil iband (200 3) stat ing that ?eve ry scho o l will hav e its own philo so phy fo r prov iding every pupil with the best possible educat io n to allo w them to achie ve their po te nt ial ....T he inte rnal and exte rnal 6 env iro nm e nt of the schoo ls must clearly allo w fo r this witho ut co m prom ise (D fES, 200 3 b, p.2 ) .? Equally the brie f dem ands a schoo l design which meet s the needs of all users, is cent ral to the com m unity , and enco urages ?well being, self - e ste em , a sense of owne rship (DfES, 2 003 b, p.3 ) .? On the othe r hand, I co nt end that the brie f is deeply co nse rv at iv e and stifle d by hist o ry, co st and caut io n. Fo r exam ple , the brie f stre sse s that , whate ve r the future, ?a basic lev e l of relat iv e ly tradit io nal teaching areas will curre nt ly be require d? and that ?the majo rit y of prim ary scho o ls co nt inue s to require classro om s, perhaps with so me share d teaching areas, as well as sm alle r suppo rt space s and halls (p.8 & 21) .? The echo e s of Robso n?s School Architecture (187 7) and the Bo ard schoo ls of the late Vict o rian era are unde niable , with the im pe nding risk of schoo ls, once again being ? repre se nt at iv e of our past, not our future .? Overall the Gov e rnm e nt ?s am bit io ns and Gilbe rt?s (200 6 ) speculat io n on transfo rm at io n thro ugh personalised learning is evide nc e that, to day , scho o l design is taking place befo re a co nce pt ually radic al pedago gy has been fully artic u late d. In effe c t this leave s the design communit y to draw inspirat io n fro m the wo rding of the discussio n which co nce ntrat e s on desire d, yet misle ading outco me s, as oppo se d to the pract ic al reality of Educat io n. As Lawso n remark s, ?we kno w precise ly what we want to achie v e in a schoo l and yet we are clearly unce rt ain as to ho w it sho uld be realize d (2000 , p.v ii) .? Designing fo r an educat io nal pract ic e which is no t yet evide nt in scho o ls is highly am biguo us. If Black ?s (20 06 ) view is accept e d that ?the mo st succe ssful designs come fro m unde rst anding the needs of the peo ple that u se them (p.1 ) ,? then designers are challe nge d to design fo r a future scenario base d on future childre n and future teache rs. Thus Miliband reaso nably asse rt s that ?fle x ibilit y is key (20 02 , p.1) ?; nev e rt he le ss the wo rds of the relat ive ly unfam iliar po st - War archit e c t Dav id Medd are caut io nary: ?to design fo r every t hing is to design fo r nothing (199 8, p.2 ) ,? and will be discusse d fur t he r in Chapt e r 2. In the meant im e , the first new scho o ls are start ing to be labe lle d ?new old? buildings (Wat so n, 200 8 ) and despite the perse v e ranc e of the schoo l building pro gramm e s, the sense that schoo l design has reache d an im passe is overw he lm ing with Bo ot h & Curt is (20 08 ) describing eight out of ten seco ndary scho o ls describe d as eithe r medio c re or no t go o d eno ugh. Of great co nce rn must be the risk of com prom ising the educat io n of childre n fo r the fore see able future by inade quat e facilit ie s, a situat io n expe cte d to be exace rbat e d furt he r with im pe nding inve stme nt cuts (Sugde n, 200 9 ) . 7 1.2 Child-centred schools ? a 2010 perspective I hav e sugge st e d that perso nalise d learning dom inat es the educat io nal design agenda, unde r which circum st ance s it would be easy to co nside r it the mo st im po rt ant eleme nt of, if not syno nymo us with, child - cent re d scho o ls. Cert ainly in theo ry it relat es to the learning co nt e nt, metho d and fo rm al and info rmal env iro nm e nt in which an indiv idual child?s learning will pro gre ss, much of which is dire c t e d and dete rm ine d by the child: The ai m is to enable pupils to unde rst and them se lv es bett e r as learne rs and so take great e r co nt ro l of and respo nsibility fo r their learning, transferring and apply ing a wide ning repe rto ire of learning appro ac he s in diffe re nt subje cts and co nte x ts. They also offe r a language fo r talking abo ut learning which goes beyo nd reduc t ive no tio ns of ?learning sty le s? to fo cus mo re clearly on cognit iv e and affe c t iv e deve lo pme nt (Miliband, 2007 , p.3 ) . It is im po rt ant to unde rstand the mo tiv at io ns fo r this indiv idualist ic appro ac h to Educat io n and appraise how child - c e nt re d they are. First ly I pro pose that , prim arily , perso nalisat io n is eco nom ic ally mo tiv ate d. The Gov e rnm e nt explic it ly illust rat e s the im po rt anc e place d upo n an indiv idual?s lo ng term eco no m ic prospe rity and, equally , their eco nom ic co nt ributio n (DfES, 200 6 a) . In theo ry , those curre nt ly in Educat io n will dete rm ine the future pro spe rit y of the eco nom y; busine ss h as there fo re had a vest e d inte re st which bo th van Mane n (20 05 ) and Burke & Gro sv e nor (200 3 ) argue , has manifest e d itse lf in a pervasiv e effec t on Educat io n. The curric ulum is ideally place d to be adapt e d base d on co nce pt io ns of eco nom ic well - be ing and, refle c t ing the perce ive d dire c t io n of the eco nom y, Quigle y (200 8) note s a grow ing shift from kno w le dge - base d to skills - base d educat io n. This is entir e ly allie d to the perso nalisat io n/ indiv idualisat io n of Educat io n which Gilbe rt (200 6 ) maint ains refle c t s the dem ands of the glo bal econo my . Fo r inst ance , at the turn of this cent ury , Wise & Baum gart ne r (199 9) estim at e the UK serv ic e eco nom y to be 70% of the who le which Kendric k (200 2 ) co nside rs to be unde rpinne d by the pheno me no n of inte lle ct ual pro pe rty . He evaluat e d the ratio of intangible to tangible asse ts in busine ss ident ify ing that , o ver the last seve nt y years, this ratio has change d from 30: 70 to 63:3 7 . By seem ingly fo cusing attent io n on the indiv idual, the Gov e rnm e nt is inve st ing in future inte lle c t ual capit al; in part ic ular, creat iv ity is now co nside re d an eco nom ic reso urc e (NACCCE , 199 8 ) and i n this co nte x t , Ridde rst rale & Nordst rom (20 04 ) argue that w e need mo re , no t less, no n - c o nfo rm ist s : ?t o day the scarce st reso urc e is not inv e stm e nt but im aginat io n (p.8 1 ) .? 8 One might argue that the inte re st in the indiv idual child there fo re is co nt rive d and do es no t really rev e al an inte re st in the child per se. Cert ainly it is arguable that the co urt ing of child - c e nt re d schoo ls, on balanc e , does no t stem from the deve lo pm e nt al needs and nature of the child as argue d by the like s of Ro usse au (200 4 ) , Dewe y (19 38 ) and Pia ge t (19 75 ) and being able to make this link , I wo uld argue, is a co nv e nie nt co inc ide nc e . Ho we v er, there is a co unt e r argum e nt made by Arthur (200 3 ) that preparing a child to part ic ipate effe c t iv e ly in the eco no my in adult ho o d is inde e d in the inte re st s of the child and there fo re child - c e nt re d. Whet he r the mo tiv at io n for child - c e nt re d schoo ls is disinge nuo us or not, what is most relev ant is that perso nalise d learning and its effe c t on the c hild?s expe rie nc e at scho o l rem ains large ly speculat ive ; Rudd (20 08 a, p.7 ) , co nside ring the view that ? perso nalisat io n has been put fo rw ard as being cent ral to Educat io n but, as yet, its very nature rem ains insuffic ie nt ly defined ,? dete rm ine s that perso nalise d learning sho uld be seen as an ongo ing evo lv ing pro ce ss rathe r than a one - o ff deliv e ry . The stubbo rn pract ic e and support ing phy sic al env iro nme nt s are evide nce , I maint ain , that Educat io n do es no t fare well with r ev o lut io n , as Bro gde n (200 7 ) argue d, and the effe c t iv e evo lut io n of perso nalise d learning require s a ro ute into the curre nt cult ure , or a start ing po int . In this respec t transfo rm at io n, a jo urne y which Rudd (200 8 a) there fo re argue s is nece ssarily unde fine d, must require an unde rst anding of Educat ion to day and, fro m a design po int of view , ho w the phy sic al scho o l influe nc e s childre n. Despite the theo ret ic al po ssibilit ie s of perso nalise d learning in which the who le o f the child?s schoo l expe rie nce is em brac e d within a fo rm al and info rmal learning co nt ex t , cert ainly to day a child?s expe rie nc e at schoo l is much bro ade r than curre nt co nce pt io ns of learning; both Willm s (200 0) and Libbey (200 4) highlight the narrow ne ss of the curre nt reality of learning and attainme nt . In fact they indic at e that bo th learning and attainme nt are predic at ed by othe r mo re so cial facto rs. There fo re , while learning may be co nside re d to be at the heart of any schoo l it wo uld be wro ng to sim ply assum e that it will be the so le dete rm inant of the child?s happine ss and lo ng term pro spe rit y . It is im po rt ant , there fo re , to lo ok bo th at and wide r than the child?s curre nt learning and at tainm e nt expe rie nc e s and, as the eco no m ic motiv at io ns reve al, their indiv idualism . This broader than learning appro ac h is no t in fact co ntradic t o ry to the Go ve rnment ?s 2010 pre - e le c t io n strat e gy . Within the last ten years po licy has begun to reco gnise the schoo ls? wi de r respo nsibility to childre n beyo nd learning, which curre nt ly prese nt s firme r gro und on which to co nside r child - c e nt re d scho o ls. W hit e (200 5 , p.9 7 ) claim s it is only since 200 0 that the Go ve rnme nt h as ?laid down fo r schoo ls, in any detailed way , what their aim s should be,? with respe c t to helping the child lead a ?flo urishing life . ? 9 With this in mind, G illard (19 92 , p.1 ) describe s child - c ent re d educat io n as start ing ?from where the child is, ackno w le dging the child?s inte grit y and regarding his/ he r needs and inte re st s as param o unt .? Acco rdingly , UNICE F describe s child - c e nt re d schoo ls as ?act ing in the best inte re st s of the child, leading to the realisat io n of the child?s full po te nt ial ... (20 04 ) ?. While this mirro rs the motiv at io ns behind the Gov e rnm e nt ?s visio n of personalise d learning, which Gilbe rt (200 6) describe s as ?taking a highly struct ure d and respo nsive appro ac h to each child?s and yo ung perso n?s learning (p.6 ) ?, it sits within mo re expansiv e no tio ns of what can be describe d as the child?s well-being. Rece nt legislat io n expo se s this po licy . The Educat io n and Inspe c t io ns Act 200 6 ( Lo ndo n: Stat io ne ry Offic e ) obligate s the ? go ve rning bo dy of a maint aine d schoo l ? to ? promo t e the well - be ing of pupils at the schoo l (DCSF, 200 8 , p.3 ) ,? and to secure comm unit y co hesio n (West - Burnham , 200 8 ) . The Act go es on to define a child?s well - be ing in term s of ? phy sic al and ment al healt h and emo t io nal well- be ing?; ?prot e ct io n from harm and negle c t ? ; ?educ at ion, training and recre at io n ? ; ?the co nt ribut io n made by him to so cie ty ? ; ?so cial and eco nom ic well- be ing (DCSF, 200 8 , p.8 ) .? In this way , well - be ing is define d legally to com prise a breadt h of mult iple and dive rse facto rs, of which eco nom ic well - be ing co uld be argue d to take a do m inat ing po sit io n. Explanat io ns of ho w well- be ing is sense d by an indiv idual cent re ro und ho list ic feelings of life satisfac t io n and co nt e nt ment ( Ko nu, Linto ne n & Rim pe l?, 2002 a ) or the degre e to which qualit y of life is co nside re d favo urable (Vee nhov e n, 199 1) . There fo re, while well - be ing can be co nside re d a highly com ple x entity of cause and effec t it is co nside re d to have a relat iv e ly sim ple psy cho lo gic al manife st at io n (dire ct ing the appro ac h of Study 1 prese nt e d in Chapte r 3). It is, ho we v er, the cause rathe r than the effe c t that is of mo st inte rest to educat io nalist s but White (200 5, p.9 7 ) , reco gnising a lack of und e rst anding, argue s, ?if fo remost am o ng the value s which unde rlie a natio nal educat io n system is the well- be ing of the indiv idual, po licy - m ak e rs need to be able to say what that well- be ing co nsist s in.? The Go ve rnme nt has cert ainly atte m pt e d to define well - be ing in term s of the po sit iv e outcom e s em bo die d in the Educat io n and Inspe c t io ns Act 2006 . Its five outcomes , cent ral to the Every Child Matters pro gramm e (D fES, 200 6 a) , are describe d as ? to be healt hy , stay safe , enjo y and a chiev e , make a po sit iv e co nt ribut ion and achie ve eco no m ic well- be ing (p.1 3) .? This pro v ide s a sim ple philo so phic al fo cus fo r scho o ls, yet it is no t an academ ic ally co m pre he nsive list; Dunne (200 5) wo uld quest io n the abse nce of spirit ualit y, fo r exam ple . Neve rt he le ss, it is no t uncom mo n fo r the 1 0 Gove rnme nt and educat ionalist s to prio rit ise the prefe rre d outco me s of schoo l which arguably are ofte n transito ry prio rit ie s. In th e 19 th Cent ury , fo r exam ple , Dr Thom as Arno ld of Rugby Schoo l sugge st e d a quite diffe re nt set of prio rit ies as ?first religio us princ iple s, seco ndly gent lem anly co nduc t , thirdly inte lle c t ual abilit y (D ixo n & Muthe sius, 19 78 , p.24 1) .? Altho ugh UNICE F inte rpre ts child - c e nt re d schoo ls as ? act ing in the best intere st s of the child (200 4 , para. 4),? requiring a co nse nsus on what co nst itut e s a child?s best inte re st s, a co mmo n and persist ing prem ise is that Educat io n define s its purpose base d on a bro ade r view of a child?s future co nt ribut io n to so cie t y . In this way I sugge st that a child?s well- be ing m ight be equat e d mo re clo se ly with citize nship than with indiv idualism . In this reading of child - c e ntre d schoo ls, it is evide nt that well - be ing is subje ct to cult ural and so ciet al norm s which many do no t agree sho uld dete rm ine the indiv idual; Saint (198 7 ) , fo r exam ple , choo se s to define child - c e nt re d schoo ling as deny ing ?that the needs of the stat e , the churc h or the eco nom y ought to shape the dev e lo pme nt of a child?s expanding co nsc io usne ss (198 7 , p.39 ) .? This pu rist definit io n stems fro m the p o pularisat io n of the co nce pt by Ro usse au (200 4) which was deve lo ped furt he r by a succe ssio n of 18 th / 19 th Cent ury educat ionalist s including Pestalo zzi and Fro e be l , as outline d in Darling (199 4) . Ross (20 00 , p.4) explains the basis of Ro usseau?s view of child - c e ntre d educat io n, summ arising the prem ise that ?the child will deve lo p naturally , giv en a suit able env iro nme nt ; the child?s dev e lo pme nt is be st self - dire c t e d; the ro le of the teache r is to enable learning not to transm it kno w le dge ; and the learning pro ce ss sho uld be organize d fo r indiv iduals and no t class - size d gro ups.? Ro usse au, and to so me exte nt Saint (1987 ) , are describing a pure fo rm of pe rso nalise d learning where the indiv idual pursuit of learning is in fact the entire t y of the scho o l, at which po int perso nalise d learning do es beco me syno ny mo us with a child - c e nt re d school. As a result of the two philoso phic al stanc e s, Olso n (200 3 , p.4 ) ident ifie s a ?wide ning gap betw ee n pro po sals fo r scho o l refo rm , one gro up seeing the achie v em e nts of the co lle c t ive as prim ary, the othe r seeing the expe rie nce , belie fs, and goals of indiv idual learne rs as prim ary . ? The definit io n and unde rst anding of child - c e nt re d schoo ls can there fo re init ially be view e d across a spect rum ( Figure 1 - 2 ), which indic at es the philoso phic al co nte ntio n in Educat io n which Olso n describe s. Figure 1-2 Initial representation of the child-centred spectrum. Developed by the author 1 1 Du nne (200 5 ) howev e r argue s that Educat io n cannot be inde pe nde nt of the state or the eco nom y , reve aling a belief that Saint ?s definit io n is pure ly a theo re t ical view po int with lim ite d pract ic al applic at io n. Inde ed Ro usse au?s (200 4) ideas, tho ugh highly influe nt ial, hav e been crit ic ise d fo r their lack of appre c iat io n of the child?s so cial env iro nme nt (Ro ss, 2000 ) . Dewe y (193 0) , perhaps the mo st influe nt ial pro gre ssiv e educat io nalist of the 21 s t Cent ury , inte rpre t e d these child - c e nt re d ideas in a much mo re socio lo gic al way unde rpinning Dunne ?s (20 05 ) stanc e that , ?any stat e must expect its schoo ls to perfo rm a stro ng socialis ing funct io n ? to equip yo ung peo ple with kinds of know le dge , skill and co nv ic t io n that will fit them fo r citize nship as it is define d in that state (p.14 7) .? This co nse nsus is also suppo rt e d by Ro ss? (20 00 ) argum e nt that ?Co nt em po rary child - c e nt re d educat io n, or pro gre ssive educat io n, is no lo nge r base d on the naiv e assum pt io n that educato rs must no t inte rfe re with childre n?s deve lo pm e nt , or that such dev e lo pme nt will not be deeply affec t e d by the so cial co nt ex t in which the child dev e lo ps (p.1 38 ) .? There is a stro ng co nse nsus which ident ifie s the co nnec t io n betwe e n well - be ing and an indiv idual?s abilit y to fit into so ciet y and which co nt radic t s the po lar co nte nt io n of Figure 1 - 2 to argue that the dev e lo pme nt of the indiv idual is in fact a subse t of the schoo l?s so cialisat io n ro le in pro duc ing citize ns, as illustrat e d in Figure 1 - 3 . Figure 1 - 3 fo llo w s from the theo re t ic al basis of the Wheel of Wellness prese nte d by Myers, Swee n e y & Witm e r (200 0 ) , show n in Appe ndix 2. Figure 1-3 The dual responsibilities of schools and their relationship ? further representation of child-centred interests. Developed by the author In summ ary , to day ?s inte rpre t at io n of child - c e nt re d scho o ls can be argue d to be an inv e st igat io n of well- be ing which is a dive rse entity , define d, I wo uld argue , sim plist ic ally by the Gov ernm e nt in 1 2 its five outcomes. A lt ho ugh perso nalise d learning is evide nc e of the p rio rity being place d on ensuring the co unt ry has the nece ssary skills to com pe t e in the glo bal market place and of the perce ive d asse t s of indiv idualism and creat iv it y, fo r exam ple , in many way s the preo c c upat io n with perso nalise d learning in the discussio ns abo ut design denie s the bro ade r so cialisat io n ro le of schoo ls. The transfo rm at io n which is discusse d , I pro po se , is view e d as a philoso phic al cho ic e betwe e n indiv idualisat io n and so cialisat io n , or the indiv idual and the homo ge no us gro up, but inv e st igat io n of the bro ade r educat io nal debat e bey o nd design sugge st s that this is not a realistic objec t iv e . Whit e urge s that ?indiv iduals are no t the final autho rity on their flo urishing (200 5, p.1 06 ) .? He argue s that indiv iduals should be guide d by the co lle ct iv e wisdo m which has creat e d a comm o n value syste m over tim e ; cult ure and so ciet y in othe r wo rds. 1.3 Interpreting well-being ? developing a literature-based model Se c t io n 1.2 allie d the co ncept of child - c e nt re d schoo ls to well - be ing and, oste nsibly , it is diffic ult to dispute the wish to im pro v e how a child feels and , refe rring to Veenhov e n (199 1 ) , perce ive s the q ualit y of their liv e s . Despit e the obv io us susce pt ibilit y of well - be ing to so ciet y ?s judgm e nt s of what is of value , this sect ion will deriv e som e co nse nsus on what influe nc es well- be ing on a mo re obje c t iv e lev e l. In to day?s co nt ex t well - be ing may be fundam e nt al to the child - c e nt re d scho o l but the translat io n of this co nce pt into meaningful phy sic al env iro nm e nts, I sugge st , is co m ple x . On its own, well - be ing is no t well unde rsto od at a pract ic al lev e l, and as a result it is diffic ult to ident ify what the sch oo l or the designe r can specific ally do to promo t e it. In addit io n, the language surro unding PCP tussles with othe r inte rre lat e d and pote nt ially wo rt hy terms, describing: ? att rac t iv e suppo rt and pe rso nal space s to enco urage well being, self este em , a sense of ownership, alo ng with a po sit iv e relat io nship betwe e n the scho o l and the local com m unity (DfES, 2003 b, p.3 ) .? In orde r there fo re fo r this debat e to help rather than hinde r child - c e nt re d design in a 21 s t Cent ury co nt e xt , it is esse nt ial to unde rst and what these wo rds mean and ho w they link to ge t he r; in othe r wo rds prov iding the fo undat io n to start to dev e lo p co he re nt schoo l design brie fs . Even within the Psy cho lo gy comm unit y , the inte rre lat io nships of term s are unclear . While the ende avo urs of psy cho lo gists to name and inve st igate tho usands of hum an trait s are reco gnise d, 1 3 Judge , Erez, Bo no & Tho rese n (20 02 ) no te crit ic ism that ? the se labo rs hav e pro duc e d inde pe nde nt lite rat ure s that evo lv e d from relat e d trait s with litt le co nside rat io n of their po ssible commo n co re (p.6 93 ) .? Equally, Watso n & Clark (198 4) note that , ?dis t inc t and segre gat e d lite rature s have dev e lo pe d aro und a num be r of perso nalit y trait s that, despit e dissim ilar name s, nev e rt he le ss inte rc o rre late so highly that they must be co nside re d measure s of the sam e co nst ruc t (p. 465 ). ? I there fo re take a cro ss - dis c iplinary appro ac h to dev e lo p a mo de l of well- be ing which, suspe c t ing that curre nt scho o l design aspirat io ns may be unre alist ic , aim s to asce rt ain a realist ic and info rme d expe c t at io n of design. The mo de l prov ide s a frame wo rk with which to appraise the pur suit of desire d psy cho logic al or affe c t iv e design outcom e s , such as self- e st e em and inclusio n . By explo ring well- be ing info rme d by a range of lite rature cov e ring theo rie s on hum an needs, dev e lo pme nt , capabilit ie s and com m unit ie s, I build the mo de l thro ugh a series of iterat io ns ; init ially these iterat io ns large ly refle c t co nce rns of the indiv idual child but which, as the mo de l evo lve s, incre asingly draw upo n co nce pt io ns of citizenship , a relat io nship repre se nt e d prev io usly in Figure 1 - 3 . Mo reo ve r, cont e nding that the po pular disco urse and brie fs direc t designe rs firm ly to wards perso nalise d learning, I ende avo ur to establish the relat io nship betwe e n the indiv idual?s learning and bro ade r child - c e nt re d co nce rns. Overall, t he well - be ing mo de l is inte nde d to guide the inve st igat io n of children?s relat io nships with their phy sic al scho o l in subse que nt chapt ers. Refle ct ing the tradit io n of div e rge nt term ino lo gy indic at e d by Judge et al. (200 2 ) abo ve , exist ing mo de ls of well- be ing take vario us diagram m at ic fo rm s and nam e s , and well - be ing is suffic ie nt ly pliant fo r such mo de ls to serv ice the unde rly ing area of inte re st and agenda of the autho r . Fo r exam ple while Maslow (194 3 ) and Max - Ne e f, Elizalde & Ho pe nhay n (198 9 ) inte rpre t e d well - be ing in term s of the satisfac t io n of hum an needs , expo sing an alte rnat iv e agenda, Nussbaum (200 0 ) has prefe rre d to co nce nt rat e on the fulfilm e nt of human capabilit y in the co nte x t of wome n?s well- be ing. Equally , w hile the Ko nu & Rim pe l? (200 2 b) co n ce pt ual mo de l of schoo l well- be ing is evide nt ly motiv at e d by an inte re st in healt h , po licy - base d g ov e rnm e nt al mo de l s ha v e arguably led to a great deal of effo rt in defining well- be ing in the pursuit of meaningful quant it at ive measure me nt . This includes the co nside rat io n of so cial, psy cho lo gic al, subje c t iv e, obje ct ive and phy sic al well - be ing; Hir d (20 03 ) argue s that such effo rt s to diffe re nt iat e are so far inco nc lusiv e and quit e po ssibly unne c essary . Diagramm at ic ally , the field is co nfro n t e d by matrice s (Max - Nee f et al., 198 7 ) , pyram ids (Maslo w & Frage r, 1987 ) , venn diagram s (Sm it h, 2006 ) , and even sym bo lic flow e rs ( Kana?iaupuni, Malo ne & Ishibashi, 200 5 ) , perhaps reinfo rc ing the asse rt io n that th e breadt h of well - be ing as a co nce pt 1 4 allo w s it to be inte rpre t e d in many way s to adv anc e a part ic ular argume nt . (Appendix 2 illust rat e s som e of the mo de ls describe d) . The specific aim of this thesis in deve lo ping a well - be ing mo de l is to discuss affe ct iv e outcom e s of design which, reco gnising Hird ?s (20 03 ) rese rv at io ns , do es no t attem pt to dist inguish betw ee n highly inte rco nne c te d aspec t s such as so cial and psy cho lo gic al well- be ing fo r exam ple . Most im po rt ant ly , and unlik e exist ing mo de ls, I intro duce the eleme nt of tim e in which diffe re nt outco me s emerge a s crit ic al in the evaluat io n of well- be ing in the co nte x t of (schoo l) design ; this is explaine d in Stage 1 which fo llow s. 1.3.1 Stage 1: Starting with the Government?s position T his thesis argue s that , in design, unde rst anding the clie nt is as im po rt ant as unde rst anding the brie f, and , co nsist e nt with establishe d user - c e nt re d design princ iple s (Olphe rt & Damo daran, 200 4 ) , co nce rns itse lf with the true clie nt of child - c e ntre d schoo l design, the child. Ho we ve r, reco gnising also that ?indiv iduals are not the final autho rit y on their flo urishing (Whit e , 200 5, p.1 0 6) ,? the Go ve rnme nt , the autho r of the brief, and its perspec t ive on a child?s well- be ing prese nt s a valid start ing point . The mo de l begins with an obse rv at io n of the specific nature of the five outcomes , which repre se nt a translat io n of the requirem e nt s of the 2006 Educat io n an d Inspe c t io ns Act into a descript io n as oppo se d to a definit io n of well - be ing. To reit e rate , the five outcomes are ? to be healt hy , stay safe , enjo y and achiev e , make a po sit ive co nt ribut io n and achie v e eco nom ic well- be ing (D f ES, 2006 a, p.1 3 ) ? which can be obse rve d to em erge at diffe re nt stage s of a child?s scho o l exist e nc e . Fo r exam ple , I argue that a six year old bo y may expe rie nc e enhance d enjoyment today but it is like ly to be in many years? tim e when he is able to exp e rienc e economic well-being o f which he is the creato r. This tim e elem e nt is fundam e nt al to the deve lo pm e nt of the well - be ing mo de l and in keeping with othe r definit io ns of well- be ing; Woo dill, Renw ic k, Brow n & Raphae l (19 94 ) , fo r exam ple , indire c t ly acknow le dge the im port anc e of tim e by describing well- be ing in terms of being, belo nging and beco m ing. The well - be ing mo de l is there fo re co nce rne d with when a schoo l or its design can induc e an affe c tiv e change in a child and there fore ho w dire c t this influe nc e is. Due to the expe rie nt ial nature of the phy sic al schoo l, an appre c iat io n of tim e perio ds could arguably help to unlo c k the pract ic al signific anc e of well- be ing by ident ify ing the po ssible co nt ribut io n of design in the day - t o - day expe rie nce of the child. 1 5 1.3.1.1 Definitions of time periods within the model W it hin England and Wales there are prese nt ly fo ur key stage s in prim ary (Key Stage 1 and 2) and seco ndary (Key Stage 3 and 4) educat io n which dete rm ine the adm inist rat iv e struc t ure of Educat io n (HM Gov e rnm e nt , 2009 ) . This is illust rat e d in Table 1 - 1 and exclude s the early years, or Fo undat io n Stage , and Key Stage 5, bett e r know n as the sixt h fo rm . Key Stage Year Age K S1 1 and 2 5 years to 7 years KS2 3 to 6 inclusive 7 years to 11 years inclusive KS3 7 to 9 inclusive 11 years to 14 years inclusiv e KS4 10 and 11 14 years to 16 years inclusiv e Table 1-1 Key Stages - England and Wales. Source: HM Government (2009) Figure 1 - 4 on the fo llow ing page uses these cate go ries to sho w a tim e line represent ing the child?s pro gre ssio n fro m Key Stage 1 to adult ho o d. This is co nse c ut ive ly relate d to a sho rt , medium and lo ng te rm time fram e; sho rt term is co nsidere d to be within an academ ic year, medium term is betw ee n 1 and 6 years which, if the childre n had just start e d prim ary scho o l, wo uld take them up to prim ary leav ing age, and lo ng term is bey o nd 6 years. There are lim ite d prece de nt s fo r defining sho rt , medium and lo ng term tim e frame s and there fo re these hav e been put fo rward to refle ct what occurs within the prim ary scho o l, i.e. until the age of 11, and what can occur subse que nt ly . 1.3.1.2 First iteration of the well-being model Enjoyment and economic well-being were offe re d as an exam ple of two of the five outcomes which can surface at diffe re nt tim e s and these are sho w n in their rele vant tim e perio d in the first iterat io n of the well - be ing mo de l sho w n in Figure 1 - 4 . The mo de l acknow le dge s that a child, by schoo l age, will alre ady have a disposit io n to wards enjo ym e nt in term s of their abilit y to enjo y them se lve s and their sense of enjoy me nt , i.e. what they perce iv e to be fun (Schro dt , 199 2) . Base d on what happe ns at sc hoo l, I argue that change s in enjo ym e nt can be influe nc e d and expe rie nce d by the child imm e diat e ly, or today , where as the prim ary scho o l will only hav e a part ial and belat e d influe nce on eco nom ic well- be ing, typic ally em erging in adult ho o d. Figure 1 - 4 ident ifie s 1 6 when these changes will feasibly init ially em erge as a result of the child?s schoo ling. In the diagram each is repre se nted as an arro w to indic at e that change s are po te nt ially ongo ing bey o nd th e po int at which they emerge . The Well-Being Model KS1 KS2 KS3 KS4 Adult Today Short Medium Long Term Figure 1-4 First iteration of the well-being model: Enjoyment and economic well-being compared. Developed by the author In future , the tim e line indicat ing the key stage s in Figure 1 - 4 will be remov e d in orde r fo r the mo de l to be read in respe ct to the prese nt ( today) and what can happe n to the child?s well - be ing subse que nt ly . Base d on the discussio n prese nt e d later in Sect io n 1.3 .2 , it is argue d that as childre n get olde r and their charac t ers becom e mo re fo rme d, the tim e sc ale s fo r e ffe c t ing change s in well- be ing outco me s will become mo re prot rac te d; this unde rline s the im po rt anc e of prim ary schoo l in addre ssing aspe c ts of well- be ing and succe ss at scho o l in late r years. It is appare nt that there are othe r esse nt ial facto rs which might influe nce enjo ym e nt . Fo r exam ple , Nussbaum ?s Cap abilit y M o de l (20 00 ) id ent ifie s the im po rt ance of engaging the sense s, im aginat io n and tho ught which can be co nside re d to be ment al and physic al stimulation and co nt ributo ry to enjo ym e nt . Equally Max - Nee f et al. (19 89 ) ident ify needs relat ing to social interaction, expression, bo th ment al and phy sic al, physical activity , relaxation, creation and effort all of which may influe nc e or be part of a child?s enjo ym e nt and mo re gene rally t heir well- be ing in the prese nt . With these elem e nt s in place it is arguable that change s in the child?s motivation (Schro dt , 1992 ) may becom e evide nt in the short term . These are include d in the furt he r dev e lo pme nt of the well - be ing mo de l in Figure 1 - 5 , indi c at ing ho w the mo de l will be adde d to thro ugho ut this chapte r as a result of the discussio n . The prev io us addit io ns of e njo ym e nt and eco nom ic well- be ing are sho w n in grey . Enjoyment Economic well-being 1 7 The Well-Being Model Today Short Medium Long Term Figure 1-5 The well-being model: interpreting the five outcomes. Developed by the author Re m aining with the five outcomes , enjoym e nt has been describe d as an outcome of what is happe ning in the prese nt , an explanat io n which can equally be applie d to staying safe . Pro bab ly as a result of their fam ily backgro und childre n will also have an unde rst anding of stay ing safe and in this way it can be seen that the sco pe for influe nc ing a child?s well- be ing is highly depe nde nt on the child?s exist ing expe rienc e and perso nalit y, i. e. the start ing po int dete rm ined by what has com e befo re scho o l. Achievement can be view ed in two way s. Undo ubt e dly it is po ssible to achieve somet hing in the prese nt but, in educat io nal term s, Coo pe r (20 04 ) co nside rs achi ev em e nt to be a mo re sust aine d, repe t it iv e entity . In this respe c t it is lo gic al to describe a child?s day - t o - day successes , as they are define d by the scho o l, which lead on to achiev em e nt in the sho rt term . It is expec t e d that the child?s knowledge and skills/attributes , such as creativity or resilience , can also dev e lo p in the sho rt term . In Stage 2 on page 20 the so cially - re fle c t ive nature of succe ss and achie v em e nt is Enjoyment Motivation Economic well-being Social interaction Stimulation Expression Relaxation Effort Physical activity Creation 1 8 discusse d which indic at e s that r ecognition, as describe d by Murray (19 38 ) , a co nt e m po rary of Maslow , also belo ngs in an obje c t iv e mo de l of well - be ing. Positive contribution is sim ilar to achiev em e nt because , while it can be co nside red in the prese nt , as a mo re sustaine d outcom e it sho uld arguably be co nside re d as em erging from the repeat e d participation of the child, assum ing this part ic ipat io n is a po sit ive expe rie nce . Finally co nside ring health, a child will ente r schoo l with a leve l of phy sic al and ment al healt h dete rm ine d by their nature and nurt ure (Hall & Ellim an, 200 3) . Whilst unde r typic al circum st ance s it is not expe c te d that a sust ai ne d im prov em e nt in healt h can occur within a day, it may be achie v e d in the sho rt term , i.e. within the acade m ic year, thro ugh phy sic al activ ity , nutrit io n, a healt hy env iro nme nt in the sense of air qualit y , fo r exam ple , and a po sit ive psycho lo gic al env iro nm e nt (Hall & Ellim an, 200 3) . Taking air qualit y and nutrit io n as part ic ular exam ple s, these are co nside re d basic needs which Max - Ne e f et al. (198 9 ) ident ify as fact o rs of subsist e nc e . These re lat e to what I have describe d as basic , mo re prov e n (Higgins et al., 200 5) co nside rat io ns of design and are no t sho w n in this mo de l which relat e s to mo re affe c t iv e aspe ct s of well - be ing. ( Appe ndix 3 describe s these basic s and their relat io nship to the overall well- be ing mo de l ) . Figure 1 - 6 on the fo llow ing page illust rat es how the prece ding discu ssio n can be furt he r repre se nte d in the dev e lo ping tim e - base d well - be ing mo de l . Once again prev io us addit io ns are sho w n in grey . Refe rring back to the obse rv at io ns of Dunne (20 05 ) , the five outcomes must be view e d as a si m plist ic exam inat io n of well- be ing and, as such, it can be misle ading and co nfusing. This is part ic ularly true because it do es no t ente rt ain term s such as self- e st eem and inclusio n which regularly appe ar in the same , or relat e d, comm unic at io n of the ro le o f scho o ls and their design. It is also im po rt ant to no te that the mo de l is being prese nt e d as a line ar pro gressio n but the com po ne nt s, tho ugh acting in diffe re nt time perio ds, are co nt ribut o ry to one ano the r. Fo r exam ple , an im pro ve me nt in a child?s healt h, show n as a sho rt term effec t , may then affe ct the child?s sense of enjoym e nt which may then once again hav e an influe nc e on health. 1 9 The Well-Being Model Today Short Medium Long Term Figure 1-6 The well-being model: interpreting the five outcomes (Continued). Developed by author O ne of the d isadv ant age s of this type of diagram mat ical repre se nt at io n of needs is its sim pli fie d nature nece ssary for co mmunic at io n. As a n exam ple , Maslow ?s hierarc hy of needs (19 43 ) , refe rre d to late r in mo re detail, prese nt e d a mo de l of needs in which the sim plist ic pyram idal sche m at ic has beco me wide ly used and then crit ic ise d in its own right in the absenc e of his original discussio n. Enjoyment Motivation Economic well-being Social interaction Health Participation Achievement Successes Contribution Recognition Knowledge Stimulation Skills/ Attributes Expression Relaxation Effort Physical activity Creation 2 0 1.3.2 Stage 2: An examination of self-esteem and its school relevance Ro se nberg (19 65 , p.1 5 ) simply describes self- e st eem as a favo urable or unfavo urable attit ude to ward the self, with Adle r & Stew art (20 04 ) adding that it repre se nt s a glo bal sense of self- w o rt h. Dev e lo ping this, Brande n (197 1 ) claim s it is ?the co nv ic t io n that one is com pet e nt to live and wo rt hy of liv ing (p.1 10 ) ,? which, at a philo so phic al leve l, is arguably signific ant in childre n?s ov erall sense of well - be ing. Baum e ist e r , Cam pbe ll , Krue ge r & Vo hs (20 03 ) pro pose that teache rs and pare nts hav e focuse d on self- e ste em base d on perce iv e d bene fit s which are po sit iv e ly linke d to healt h (Riv as To rre s & Fernande z Fernande z, 1995 ; Em le r, 200 1 ) , and scho o l perfo rm ance , so cial inte rac t io n and happine ss (Trautw e in, L?dtk e , K? lle r & Baume rt , 2006) . While the em piric al ev ide nc e acro ss a mult iplic it y of rese arc h in suppo rt has been pro blem at ic al, quant it at iv e issue s arise in ident ify ing cause and effe ct and iso lat ing the influe nce s of othe r fact o rs ( Maruy am a, Rubin & Kingsbury , 1981 ; Bachman & O?M alley , 197 7) . In the case of self- e st ee m and academ ic achie v eme nt fo r exam ple , overall Baum e ist e r et al. (200 3 , p.1 1 ) indic ate ?a po sit ive but weak and am biguo us relat io nship.? On balanc e there is a link betwe en achie ve me nt in the sho rt term and changes to self - est ee m which can be illust rat e d in the well- be ing mo de l in Figure 1 - 7 at the end of this sect io n . In addit io n Trautw e in et al. (200 6) and Skaalv ik (1990 ) maint ain that acade m ic perfo rm anc e and glo bal self- est e em are mediate d by acade m ic self- concept and confidence indicat ing an inte rm e diat e link betwe e n achie ve me nt , fo r exam ple , and self- e ste em . These are also repre se nt e d in the mo de l in F igure 1 - 7 . Both Mruk (20 06 ) and Baum e ist e r et al. (20 03 ) , while scept ic al of the po sit iv it y of co nclusio ns of available rese arc h gene rally acce pt that there is ev idenc e to sugge st peo ple with high self - e st eem tend to be mo re resilie nt and persist e nt , show great er init iat ive , and are gene rally happie r. This is explic it ly linke d to the Gov ernm e nt ?s five outcomes and , with refe re nc e to schoo ls, Arthur (200 3) ident ifies that self- est e em in po lic y relat ing to childre n has rece ive d increasing atte nt io n base d on a wide ly acce pted prem ise that ?childre n must be made to feel goo d abo ut them se lve s if they are to deve lo p go o d co nduc t or virt uo us behav iour (p.7 0 ) ,? and Mecca (1989 ) links self- e st ee m to an indiv idual?s sense of social responsibility . Equally , howev e r, Arthur (200 3 ) reco gnise s that the wide ly perce ive d im po rt anc e of self - e st e em refle c t s the cult ural trend towards the focus on the self and the indiv idualisat io n of so cie t y explain why , in the perso nalisat io n and the so cialisat io n ro le s of scho o l, self- e st e em is seen to be so rele v ant and appe ars so readily in discussio ns abo ut schoo ls and their design. 2 1 If design is to hav e an im pac t on childre n?s self - e ste em , as the Gov e rnm e nt wo uld ho pe , the exte nt to which self - est eem is alte rable and whet he r the mate rial scho o l can cont ribut e is fundam e nt al. In Stage 1 of the mo de l, it was ident ifie d that childre n will ente r scho o l with cert ain charac t e rist ic s alre ady fo rm e d. If, fo r exam ple , self- est e em is fo rme d befo re scho o l age an d canno t be influe nc e d, then neit he r design no r Educat io n can hav e any meaningful im pac t . If ho wev e r it co nt inue s to evo lve during a child?s schoo ling bo th Educat io n and, theo re t ic ally , design can play a part . The lite rat ure on child deve lo pm e nt gene rally c laim s that co nce pt s of the self are no t innat e altho ugh Arthur does argue that the inte rplay betwe en bio lo gy and the env iro nm e nt is still no t well unde rstoo d, sugge st ing that eleme nt s of perso nalit y , such as shy ne ss, may hav e bio lo gical origins (200 3 ) . In mediat ion ho wev e r , he cite s Flannagan & Ro rty ?s (199 0) pract ic al po s it io n which maint ains that , if a characte rist ic is inde e d alte rable , then it is no t im po rt ant if it is also bio lo gic ally deriv e d. Huit t (20 04 ) , co nt e st ing that self - est ee m is no t deriv ed gene t ic ally , maint ains that este em is ?dev e lo pe d or co nst ruc t e d by the indiv idual thro ugh inte rac t io n with the env ironm e nt and refle c t ing on tha t inte rac t io n.? Here, Huit t refe rs to env iro nm e nt in the so cial as oppo se d to the phy sic al sense . This po sit ion lo gic ally indic at e s a period in which self- e st eem is form e d, start ing fro m birt h. Taylo r ?s (199 2) stanc e is consist e nt with Huit t (20 04 ) , ident ify ing the early form at io n of self- e st ee m and its roo t s in the child?s so cial co nt e xt : ?The very way we walk, mov e , gest ure , speak is shape d from the earlie st mo me nt s by our aware ne ss that we appe ar befo re others, that we stand in public space , and that this space is pote nt ially one of respe ct or co nt em pt , of pride or shame (p.1 5 ) .? Sim ilarly , Hay & Dem e t rio u (1999 ) po int to the begi nning of aware ne ss of othe rs? perce pt io ns and emo t io ns in the child?s first year of life , acce le rat ing the dev e lo pm e nt of ident ity and charac t e r. Fro m the earlie st stage childre n?s deve lo pm e nt there fo re occurs with respec t to what they are able to do and t he effe ct of the respo nses of signific ant othe rs (Hart e r & Whit e se ll, 1996 ) . React io ns elicit e d by sitt ing, craw ling, walk ing, and talk ing arguably induc t the child into a cult ure of achiev eme nt ; even at this stage the no tio n of achieve me nt is depe nde nt on the perce pt io n and judgm e nt s of othe rs and is there fo re so cial. Late r on, at scho o l, ?We can co nclude with som e co nfide nc e that there is a clo se relat io nship betw e e n peo ple ?s social netwo rk s and their educat io nal perfo rm ance (Fie ld, 2003 , p.50 ) .? 2 2 In the child?s early years it is arguable that self- est ee m, linke d inext ric ably with conce pt s such as ident it y , is fo rme d alm o st who lly on the basis of social inte rac t io n and the child?s dev e lo ping capac it y fo r self- aw are ne ss. Piage t (19 75 ) , fo r exam ple , ascribes the dev e lo pme nt of egoce nt ric tho ught to the perio d betwe e n two and fo ur years of age, indic at ing an obse rv able lev e l of self- aw are ne ss and subse que nt charac t er form at io n. In his treatm e nt of self- e ste em , Maslow (1943 ) dete rm ine s that it cannot exist po sit iv e ly witho ut a fo undat io n of lov e , affe ctio n and belo ngingne ss, securit y and fo o d and shelt e r; aspe c t s which are id eally prov ide d at hom e to start with. In suppo rt , Em le r also co ncludes that the indiv idual?s pare nt s prov ide the stro nge st influe nce upo n self - e ste em (200 1 ) . Bo th Sulliv an (19 53 ) a nd Mruk (20 06 ) argue that self- est e em is activ e ly maint ained and the argum e nt that self - e ste em is esse nt ially a stable entity (Adle r & Stew art , 2004 ; Huit t , 200 4 ) , is wide ly acce pte d. This is suppo rt e d by the co nclusio ns of Traut we in et al. (200 6 ) who sugge st that measuring im pac ts on self- e st ee m may require a study perio d lo nge r than the acade m ic year; firmly based self- e st eem as Maslo w (19 43 ) refe rre d to it . Despite its social and large ly pare nt al origins, schoo l is incre asingly seen as an archit e c t of self- e st ee m . Arthur (200 3 ) reflec t s on the socie t al decline in the influe nc e of fam ily and Churc h with the co ncurre nt rise of schoo l and the sta t e ; he rem arks that the schoo l is no w seen as co - e qual to the fam ily in its charac t e r- pro duc ing ro le . Altho ugh childre n ente ring schoo l are cert ainly prese nt e d with new social co nt ex ts, it wo uld appe ar that self- e st e em is so cially - de rive d and well adv anc e d by the tim e a child reache s schoo l age. Whet he r self - c o nce pt s in the sho rt term change self - e ste em in the medium term or mere ly regulat e the effe c t s of establishe d and stable self - e st ee m , I pro po se that co nsist ent ongo ing self - c o nc e pts can influe nce self - e st ee m . This is illust rat e d in the well - be ing mo de l in Figure 1 - 7 on the fo llow ing page . 2 3 The Well-Being Model Today Short Medium Long Term Figure 1-7 The well-being model (Continued). Developed by author Enjoyment Motivation Self-esteem Economic well-being Social interaction Health Social responsibility Participation Achievement Successes Contribution Recognition Knowledge Stimulation Skills/ Attributes Expression Self- concepts Relaxation Confidence Effort Physical activity Creation 2 4 1.3.3 Stage 3: Longer term outcomes and the child?s societal context St age 2 determ ine d that charac t e rist ic s of the self appe ar to be predom inant ly socially deriv e d and sugge st e d an inte rco nne c t io n betwe e n self - e st e em and the dev e lo pme nt of ident it y . Ident it y has rece iv e d co nside rable atte nt io n in a so cie ty which draw s on d ive rse cult ural influe nc e s and inte re st s and, fro m a po lit ic al standpo int , it is seen as im po rt ant to direc t the aspirat io nal nature of ident it y towards so cially co he siv e ends (Beck , 1998 ) . This indic at e s a feat ure of the schoo l?s so cialisat io n ro le which include s prom ot ing a share d ident it y betw e e n div e rse groups and which refle c t s the po sit io ning scho o ls at the cent re of the comm unit y (D fES, 2006 a) . It is arguable that at this po int the fo cus of we ll- be ing naturally begins to swit c h from the indiv idual to the co lle c t iv e as pro po se d in Figure 1 - 3 on page 11 . 1.3.3.1 The relevance of identity as a desired outcome Ide nt it y is a perso nal entity defin e d by the things an indiv idual relate s to or ident ifie s with, so me of which are mo re tem po ral than othe rs. Woo dw ard (200 4 ) describes ident ity in a serie s of sim ple quest io ns including ?Who am I??, ?Whe re do I com e from ? ? a nd ?What do I want to be? ? In othe r wo rds, Wo o dw ard indic at es that ident it y relate s to what or whom a perso n ident ifie s with both in terms of their backgro und and their aspirat io ns, which are both typic ally linke d to so cial gro ups. Describing ident it y in t his way draw s a clear paralle l with the descript io n of well - be ing offe re d by Woo dill et al. (199 4 ) who refe r to being, belo nging and becom ing and it can be maint aine d that a perso n?s ident ity is a cent ral com po ne nt of well- be ing. It is im po rt ant to no te that schoo ls are in fact socie t ie s in their own right and fo rm al and info rm al gro uping is endem ic , pro v iding the social co nt ex t of ident it y . The dynam ic s of gro ups and their relat io nship with ident it y hav e been expo se d by Tajfe l & Turne r (197 9 ) in their Social Ident ity Theo ry . Explic it in the theory is the interplay of type s of ident it y including so cial ident it y and perso nal ident it y . The theory argue s that a balanc e is so ught betw ee n indiv idual relat io nships and gro up relat io nships, leading to the dete rm inat io n of bo th perso nal ident it y and so cial ident it y . Cochran (198 2) makes the dist inc t io n betwe e n perso nal ident it y and so cial ident it y by refe rring to the centre and the masks . This mirro rs the inte rpre t atio n of self- co nc e pt and self - e st ee m and it is co he re nt to treat perso nal ident it y as a mo re pro t rac te d co nce pt , in a sim ilar way to self- e ste em , and alte rable by sust aine d perce pt io ns of so cial ident it y . This diffe re nce is illust rat e d in the well- be ing mo de l in Figure 1 - 8 . Relev ant ly social ident ity is repre se nt e d as a mo re fluid, sett ing - spec ific ident it y which is highly influe nc e d by gro up dynam ic s. In the co nt ex t of the well - be ing mo de l, there fo re , patt e rns of an indiv idual?s social ident it y are like ly to emerge in the sho rt ter m . 2 5 In suppo rt of this inte rpre tat io n of ident it y the So cial Ident it y Theo ry has co nce ntrat e d signific ant ly on strat e gie s fo r gaining and maint aining a po sit iv e social ident ity (Ho rnsey , 200 8 ) on a daily basis. It is argue d that thro ugh mem be rship and gro up activ ity , peo ple ?striv e fo r a po sit iv e self- c o nce pt (Tajfe l & Turne r, 1979 , p.4 1 ) , ? which is conside re d the mo tiv at ing fact o r, co rrespo nding with Sulliv an?s (19 53 ) sugge st io n that peo ple s eek to maint ain stable co nce pt s of the self. By making the link betw ee n self - c o nce pt , which arguably co m pe nsat es fo r self- e ste em , and so cial ident it y, it is po ssible to see Shapiro ?s (200 0) asse rt io n that ident it y , or charac t e r, can also be used fo r self- re gulat ing purpo se s. It is also im po rt ant to no te that Tajfe l & Turne r (19 79 ) co rrec t ly refer to self- c o nce pt rathe r than self- e ste em . Late r wo rk, such as Ho gg & Abram s (1990 ) , predict s that an indiv idual?s demo nst rat io n of a bias towards their own gro up can lead to a rise in self - e ste em which again co nfuse s self - est ee m with mo re dynam ic and imme diat e co nce pt s. Subse que nt chapt e rs will illust rat e ho w sym bo lism used in schoo ls and also the phy sic al design of schoo ls can influe n ce and be influe nc e d by notio ns of ident it y . Suffice to say here that it is arguably vital fo r childre n to ident ify with the scho o l if the schoo l is to assist the child in achie v ing their pote nt ial. Figure 1 - 8 illust rat es how the well- be ing mo de l inco rpo rat es this discussio n on ident it y . The mo de l also refle c t s Co chran?s (19 82 ) argum e nt which sugge st s that the perso n alit y trait which nego t iate s the link betwe en so cial ident ity and personal ident it y is personal responsibility . This is sho w n as em erging in the sho rt term and it is argue d that this can deve lo p into social responsibility, as describe d by Mecca (19 89 ) in Sect io n 1.3 .2 , which he allies to self- e st ee m in terms of the tim e perio ds of the mo de l . Inte re st ingly Nussbaum (200 0 ) describe s the capabilit y of indiv idual?s to exert po lit ical and mate rial c ontrol over one ?s env iro nm e nt which, I wo uld argue is dire c t ly linke d to res po nsibilit y . 2 6 The Well-Being Model Today Short Medium Long Term Figure 1-8 The well-being model (Continued). Developed by author T he subje ct of so cial responsibilit y naturally leads to a discussio n of well- be ing and the com m unity . Enjoyment Motivation Self-esteem Economic well-being Social interaction Health Social responsibility Participation Achievement Personal identity Successes Contribution Recognition Knowledge Stimulation Skills/ Attributes Expression Self- concepts Relaxation Confidence Effort Social Identity Physical activity Personal responsibility Creation Control 2 7 1.3.3.2 School as, and within, a community .... learning, dev e lo pme nt , and educat io n are so fundam e nt ally em be dde d in a social matrix that they canno t be truly unde rst oo d apart from that co nt ex t (Goo de no w , 1992 , p.1 7 8) . So far the relat ive and so cially co m parat ive nature of well- be ing has been intro duc e d. This im plic at es the so cial and cult ural schoo l as the archit ect of a child?s self- co nc e pt s and feelings of co nfide nc e in the sho rt term . By jo ining a schoo l the child is jo ining a com m unity which prov ide s the sett ing fo r the majo rity of a child?s so cial dev e lo pm e nt outside of the fam ily and, as Brew e r & Gardne r (20 04 ) describe the sett ing fo r self - de finit io n, and there fo re ident ity : ..... indiv iduals seek to define them se lv e s in term s of their imm e rsio n in relat io nships with othe rs and with large r co llec t iv es and deriv e much of their self - ev aluat io n fro m such so cial entit ie s (p.66 ) . At a primary schoo l age I wo uld sugge st that this is highly determ ining fo r the child. As no tio ns of well - be ing exte nd beyo nd the indiv idu al, there tends to be a shift in fo cus from psy cho lo gy to socio lo gy and eco nom ic s. Max - Nee f et al. (1989 ) , an eco nom ist and env iro nm e nt alist , was inte re st e d in comm unit ie s and their cum ulat iv e effe c t on the indiv iduals of whom they com prise . His inte re sts stemme d from the eco nom ic and so cial crisis in Latin Americ a in the 1970 s and 1980 s, in which many belie ve d the perce iv e d wisdom abo ut how co mm unit ies and indiv iduals flo urish was failing. Max - Nee f bro ught to ge t her expe rt s in a num be r of fields to pro pose a new philo so phy of dev e lo pme nt calle d The Human Scale Development Model which reco nside re d basic hum an needs, their struct ure , and inte rre lat io nship in the co nt e x t of comm unit y . His appro ac h was fundam ent ally diffe re nt fro m Maslow ?s (194 3) . Where Maslo w describe d the needs of indiv iduals, Max - Ne e f et al. (198 9) described indiv iduals as part of, and the pro duc t of, bro ade r comm unit ie s; aspec t s such as self - e st eem , fo r exam ple , he argue s are deriv e d first ly at a cult ural/ com m unity lev e l. This reflec t s the views of Durkhe im (19 56 ) and Vygot sk y (197 8) , who argue d the psy cho lo gic al dete rm inat io n of indiv iduals by cult ures and inst it ut io ns like schoo ls which the discussio n on child - c e nt re d schoo ls allude d to . In this view the cult ure shape s the indiv idual from the very beginning of their liv e s and Vy go t sk y (19 78 ) po int e d out the ro le of language in this proce ss. Altho ugh Stage 1 of the well- be ing mo de l began with an indiv idualist ic 2 8 view, co nside ring the five outcomes , the param et e rs of what is po ssible fo r that indiv idual appe ar to be define d at a highe r, co lle c t iv e lev e l. Whit e (2005 ) suppo rt s the com m unity rathe r than the indiv idual appro ac h. He pro po se s an end to the indiv idualist ic frame work of well- be ing by asse rt ing that ?indiv iduals are no t the final autho rit y o n their flo urishing ( p.10 6) ? but sho uld be guide d by co lle c t iv e wisdom that has creat e d a com mo n value system over time . He sugge st s that educat io n sho uld lead childre n to a mo re ?philo so phic ally and histo ric ally info rme d set who se ratio nale is fully state d (p.10 6 ) .? Max - Nee f et al. (198 9) also reje ct e d the notio n of a hierarc hy of needs beyo nd the fundam e nt al need fo r subsist e nc e , or stay ing alive , invo lv ing foo d and shelt e r. Their mo de l is base d on sim ult aneo us, com plem e ntary needs and trade - o ffs rathe r than a hierarc hy . The crux of this mo de l reside s in the asse rt io n that fundam e ntal hum an needs are ?finit e , few, and classifiable ? and are co nsist e nt acro ss cult ure s and tim e . The diffe re nc e , Max - Nee f et al. claim, is in the way these needs are satisfie d and, they argue , ?o ne of the aspe c t s that define a cult ure is its cho ic e of satisfie rs (p.2 1) .? If fundame nt al hum an needs are co nsist e nt acro ss cult ure s it is reaso nable to co nclude that the mo de l of needs can be applie d at diffe re nt leve ls of com m unity, including schoo ls. Schoo ls, in their cent ral po sit io n within the comm unit y , are arguably highly repre se nt at ive of that co mm unit y ?s cult ure and dem ographic . This is discusse d furt h e r in Chapt er 3. The Hum an Scale Dev e lo pm e nt mo de l is co nsist e nt with the well - be ing mo de l being deve lo pe d within this chapte r in the sense that it prese nt s a culturally - de t ac he d, or obje c t iv e , frame wo rk; the cho ic e of satisfie rs of Max - Nee f et al. ?s mo de l wo uld, in the schoo l co nte x t , sym bo lise the subje c t ive schoo l in term s of cult ure and curric ula, fo r exam ple . Refle ct ing on their wo rk offe rs the oppo rt unity to co nsider indiv iduals within the broade r schoo l comm unit y and also to co nside r the Go ve rnme nt ?s mo tiv at io n to link indiv idual well - be ing to that of lo cal commun it ie s and also in relat io n to natio nal obje c t iv e s. Unlik e Max - Nee f et al. and Maslo w (19 43 ) , the well - be ing mo de l being dev e lo pe d here im port ant ly refle ct s tim e . By definit io n, Max - Nee f et al. (1989 ) describe d the inte rac t io n of existential needs of being, hav ing, do ing, and inte rac t ing and axiological , or value - re lat e d, needs of subsist enc e , prot e ct io n, affe c t io n, unde rst anding, part ic ipat io n, idle ne ss (leisure ) , creat io n, ident ity and free dom . Som e are mo re spee dily achie v able than othe rs: participation and freedom would appear to be in diffe re nt tim e f rame s when co nside re d in relat io n to the well - be ing mo de l, with free dom clo se ly relat e d to ident ity . It is also po ssible to draw paralle ls with the well- be ing mo de l and som e of the 2 9 basic needs; fo r exam ple staying safe falls within Max - Ne e f et al.?s definit io n of pro t ec t io n where as c ontribution and participation, I pro po se , may be co nside re d to be bro adly syno nym o us in their inte nde d meaning. The diffe re nt iat io n betw e en needs and satisfie rs is impo rt ant . Fo r exam ple , self - e st ee m is prese nt e d as a satisfie r of the needs fo r ident it y and free dom rathe r than an outco me in its own right . Ho we v er, by inco rporat ing elem e nts of Max - Nee f et al.?s theo ry into the well - be ing mo de l, it beco me s clear that the well - be ing mo de l com prise s a mixt ure of needs and satisfie rs and that needs may in turn becom e satisfie rs, which they did no t acknow le dge . The time - phase d appro ac h of the well - be ing mo de l helps to rev e al this and expo se s the abse nce of becoming, as describe d by Wo o dill et al. (19 94 ) and Ro yo (20 07 ) as an exist e nt ial need. There fo re altho ugh Max - Ne ef et al. (1989 ) reje c te d the co nce pt of hierarc hy , the dist inc t io ns made to com ply with a diagram m at ic al matrix are som e w hat arbit rary . Ho wev e r, refe rring to the well- be ing mo de l, there are lo gic al addit io ns. Respect, trust and understanding are place d as sho rt term outc om e s because , arguably , change s to them will take tim e to em erge . The well - be ing mo de l also inco rpo rate s the argume nt s of bo th Max - Nee f et al. (198 9) and Maslow (194 3) which indic at e that po sit ive daily so cial inte ract io n charac t e rise d by priv ac y , intimac y , to ge t he rne ss, co o pe rat io n and sharing, fo r exam ple , can lead to positive relationships , including friendships , in the sho rt term . Co nside ring affection, as ano t he r exam ple , this is a ne ed which Max - Ne e f et al. (1989 ) co nside r to be bo rne out of po sit iv e relat io nships and there fo re is no t imme diat ely achiev able . It will also be sho w n here there fo re as a sho rt term outco me . Figure 1 - 9 on th e fo llow ing page illust rat es an updat e d mo de l of well- be ing base d on the prece ding discussio n. 3 0 Today Short Medium Long Term The Well-Being Model Figure 1-9 The well-being model (Continued). Developed by author Enjoyment Motivation Self-esteem Economic well-being Social interaction Health Social responsibility Participation Achievement Personal identity Successes Contribution Freedom Recognition Knowledge Expression Self- concepts Relaxation Confidence Effort Social Identity Physical activity Personal responsibility Creation Control Respect Trust Understanding Relationships Affection Stimulation Skills/ Attributes 3 1 1.3.3.3 Social capital and further national objectives Re fe rring to the discussio n so far it is im po rt ant to see the so cialisat io n ro le of scho o ls em erging as cent ral to , or rathe r shaping of, the indiv idual? s well - be ing. It is seen as esse nt ial fo r the schoo l to assist childre n in becom ing respo nsible citize ns, funct io ning within the so cial and cult ural no rm s of socie ty witho ut ov erly inhibit ing their indiv idualism , as Figure 1 - 3 on page 11 describe d. Co nside ring the child?s po te nt ial so cial and eco nom ic co nt ribut io n, at prim ary scho o l leve l, this can be argue d to be fundam e nt ally abo ut nurt uring acce pt able social behav io ur and attainme nt , as it is define d. Max - Nee f et al. (198 9) were eage r to view indiv iduals as part of a wide r cult ure or comm unit y and it is possible to see ho w the well - be ing mo de l can begin to reve al com m unity - w ide and even natio nw ide co nside rat io ns of well- be ing. One elem e nt which has been define d and inv e st igat e d by Putnam , Bo rdie u, and Co lem an is social capital, sho w n within the well - be ing mo de l i n Figure 1 - 10 . McGo nigal, Do he rt y , Allan, Mills, Catt s, Redfo rd , McDonald, Mott & Buckle y (20 07) describe the wo rk of Putnam , Bo rdie u, and Co lem an and inve st igate social capit al in the co nt ex t of scho o ls. They ident ify that so cial capit al, or the metapho ric al value of social netw ork s, is an area of great inte re st fo r schoo ls. Fo r exam ple , W e st - Burnham (200 8 ) define s a co mm unity with high so cial capit al as hav ing share d social no rm s and value s, so phist ic at e d so cial netw o rk s, trust , civ ic engage me nt , sym bo ls and rituals, inte rde pe nde nc e and recipro c it y , vo lunt e e ring and comm unit y actio n, share d ho pe and aspirat io n. This definit io n is highly refle c t ive of ho w the well - be ing mo de l is em erging from the prece ding discussio n and relat e s signific ant ly to bene fit s of social respo nsibility and ident it y . As Mart in (200 5) describe s g o ve rnment s are naturally inte re st e d because of the po te nt ial bene fit s which ally so c ial capit al with a co lle c t ive view of self- e st eem . The reaso n why so cial capital has been attract ing attent io n is because it brings eno rmo us tangible bene fit s to so ciet y . Rese arc he rs hav e been unco ve ring mo re and mo re ev ide nc e of links betwe e n so cial capit al and desirable out - com e s in term s of eco nom ic gro w th, crime , healt h and educat io n. Am ong othe r things, citize ns with goo d netw o rk s of relat ionships hav e fewe r ment al pro blem s, reco ve r faste r from illne ss, smo ke less and liv e lo nge r. They are also less like ly to commit crim e or to be the vict im of crim e . A so cie ty rich in so cial capit al sho uld there fo re be bett er off in many ways, no t least because it sho uld need to spend less mo ne y on ho spit als, p riso ns and antide pressant drugs (Mart in, 200 5 , p.8 7 ) . 3 2 Today Short Medium Long Term The Well-Being Model Figure 1-10 The well-being model (Continued). Developed by author Enjoyment Motivation Self-esteem Economic well-being Health Social interaction Health Social responsibility Social Capital Economic Advantage Participation Achievement Personal identity Social Cohesion Successes Contribution Freedom Recognition Knowledge Expression Self- concepts Relaxation Confidence Effort Social Identity Physical activity Personal responsibility Creation Control Respect Trust Understanding Relationships Affection Stimulation Skills/ Attributes 3 3 McGo nigal et al. (200 7 ) ident ify the im po rt ance of trust and recipro c ity which nece ssit at e s the schoo l to make an ?inv e stme nt in cert ain fo rms of behav io ur (p.8 0) ?. In the well - be ing mo de l I hav e describe d ho w po sit ive inte rac t io n can lead to rewarding relat io nships, trust, respe ct and coo pe rat io n. These can be co nside re d, there fo re , fundam e nt al elem e nt s of the dev e lo pm e nt of so cial capit al and the skills which an indiv idual dev e lops in orde r to utilise social capit al. Even beyo nd the fo rm at io n of so cial capit al one can see the lo nge r term natio nal obje c t iv es of economic advantage , social cohesion and health which return to som e of the motiv at io ns fo r pro mo t ing self- e ste em but fro m a mo re ho list ic and a rathe r less po pulist view point . 1.3.4 Review T he dev e lo pme nt of a well - be ing mo de l stem me d from the co nfusio n surro unding the term ino lo gy used in the design brie fs and co mm unic a t io n asso c iat e d with the new scho o l building pro gramm es. It was also evide nt that what was being com m unic at e d to archit e cts and designe rs arguably fo cuse d on an aspirat io nal visio n fo r learning and no t one which appre c iat e d the bro ade r so cial reality of sc ho o ls; this reality is predic t e d to be the so urce of much of the frust rat io n relate d to schoo l design and which subse que nt chapte rs will rev e al. In seek ing clarific at io n, the inclusio n of misuse d terms such as self- e st eem and ident it y , fo r exam ple , do es ho we ve r appe ar to be co nsist e nt with child - c e nt re d schoo ls, which Sect io n 1.2 co nclude d are co nce rne d with childre n?s well - be ing. Ho wev e r what the well - be ing mo de l rev e als witho ut atte m pt ing to quant ify is that well- be ing is highly com plex and com prises many inte rre lat e d eleme nt s which can be bo th cause s and effe c t s, or needs and satisfiers in Max - Ne e f et al.?s (19 89 ) term ino lo gy . In these circum st ance s, quant it at ive rese arc h which pursue s cate go ric al evide nce wo uld appe ar to be ill- adv ise d. The well - be ing mo de l also indic at e s that much of the term ino lo gy used may be rele v ant to a child?s overall well- be ing but is large ly irre le v ant as an obje ct ive in a design brie f, bey o nd perhaps an intro duc to ry, visio nary sent e nc e to prov ide co nte x t. I hav e argue d that a child?s inte ract io n with the phy sic al schoo l is exist e nt ial and so will largely relat e to the prese nt where as many of these affe c t iv e aspirat io ns hav e been illust rate d to be lo nge r term, mo re stable outcom e s. To influe nc e them require s an unde rst anding of what is happe ning mo re imm e diat e ly in a child?s schoo l life but, ev en with such fo cus, it is predic t e d that it will be diffic ult to credibly claim that design has made a co nt ribut io n. Figure 1 - 11 sho ws the daily eleme nt s which design can dire c t ly influe nc e and which can ultim at e ly , altho ugh indire ct ly, co nt ribute to the lo nge r term aspirat io ns of the new scho o ls, like self - e st ee m or healt h. 3 4 Affective focus Figure 1-11 Contributors to well-being in the present: a focus for affective school design. Developed by author By im plic at io n, it is also predic t e d there fo re that any attem pt to design fo r an outcom e which is bey o n d the day - t o - day expe rie nc e of the child will be fundam e nt ally flawe d and co nt riv e d unle ss it is alre ady suppo rt e d by the schoo l cult ure . Furnit ure which claim s to promo te creat iv it y , as refe rre d to in the Intro duc tio n, is a goo d exam ple of ho w design can overst at e its po te nt ial, igno ring the many hum an fact o rs which are do m inant in schoo l. A scho o l building fro nt age which claim s to promo t e self- est ee m is equally , there fo re , manufac t ure d (DfES, 200 3 b) . Enjoyment Social interaction Participation Successes Recognition Stimulation Expression Relaxation Effort Physical activity Creation 3 5 1.4 Summary T his Chapt e r has intro duc ed the am bit io ns fo r the new scho o ls being designe d and built as part of the Prim ary Capit al Pro gramm e . Co nt aine d within these obje c t iv e s is a raft of signific ant term ino lo gy , such as self- est e em , well - be ing and ident it y , which becom e s highly nebu lo us when it appe ars in a schoo l design brie f. I hav e advo c at e d that the term ino lo gy sits under a gene ral banne r of child - ce nt re d scho o ls and has theo re t ic al merit yet it is no t well unde rst o o d in the pract ic al co nt ex t of E ducat io n, or inde e d the design wh ich suppo rt s it. Whilst this endo rse s the inte nt io n of the curre nt scho ol design pro gramm e , it does, howe ve r, highlight a dram at ic disco nne c t io n betwe e n these inte nt io ns and the first new scho o ls appe aring; it is unsurprising that these obje ct ive s are bei ng supe rse de d by fairly ordinary and tradit io nal appro ac he s to the design of schoo ls, as CABE report s (200 6 ) , which are mo re tangible . Bo th CABE and BCSE warn of designing new old schoo ls and co nse que nt ly delay ing the transfo rmat io n of the lam e nte d fo rm of schoo ls fo r ano t he r 35 years or mo re (D ude k , 200 0) . I hav e co nte ste d that the child - c e nt re d scho o l is much mo re com plex than so le ly a co nside rat io n of the child?s learning and achie v eme n t . Evide nc e sugge st s that effe c t iv e learning is predic ate d by a wide r co nte x t and this chapt e r broadly co nclude s that the objec t ive of a child - c e nt re d schoo l is to prom o te a child?s well- be ing, which is esse nt ially socially - co nst ruc te d. By asse rt ing what c hild - c e nt re d means in to day ?s co nte x t and thro ugh the dev e lopm e nt of the well- be ing mo de l, the chapt e r has been able to iso lat e what co nst it ut e s a realist ic expe ct at io n of the design comm unit y and areas which can influe nce lo nge r term affec t ive obje ctiv e s, altho ugh no t direc t ly . Equally , the well- be ing mo de l reve als the narro w ne ss of comm unic at io n relat ing to the design of schoo ls which large ly refle ct s one aspe ct of schoo l, the pursuit of the perso nalisat io n of learning. This means that : 1. what is curre n t ly being aske d fo r is unre alist ic and, 2. the sco pe of what is curre nt ly being aske d fo r is sim plist ic . Furt he rmo re , while there is som e merit in keeping design obje c t iv es sim ple , I argue that co ncurre nt ly the Go ve rnme nt is sett ing out a wide r agenda fo r Educat io n which clearly refle ct s overriding mo tiv at io ns of citize nship. It is po ssible that design is seen as an aspirat io nal pract ic e , evide nt even in the design of inst it ut io ns like priso ns fo r exam ple (Jam e s, 2006 ) , which might be inhibit e d by the full pict ure. Unfo rt unate ly it is like ly that the elem e nt s of a schoo l?s ro le which are being overloo ke d are the ones which are tying design to a tradit io nal fo rm, discusse d furt he r in Chapt e r 2. 3 6 In fact the dual ro le of Educat io n which has tradit io nally been to bo th deve lo p the indiv idual child and to so cialise them , on inspe c t io n, illust rate s the indiv idual as arguably a mino r co nce rn. So cialising a child, part ic ularly at prim ary lev e l, relate s to teaching so cial and cult ural n o rm s and enco uraging behav io ur which is deem e d to be acce pt able , co nsist e nt with perspec t iv es on social capit al which are co nside red bey o nd the indiv idual (P ut nam , 2000 ) . This endo rse s Max - Nee f et al.?s (19 89 ) view that aspe ct s such as self- est ee m are dete rm ine d first at a so cio - c ult ural leve l and prese nt s a very diffe re nt pict ure of a child - c e nt re d scho o l from the rom ant ic musings of Ro usse au?s Emile (2 00 4) . Attem pt ing t o diffe re nt iate betw ee n natural versus cult urally define d learning and achie vem e nt , or well- be ing mo re gene rally , is ineffe c t ual in this respe c t . The ro le of mainst re am Educat io n and its curric ulum is also co nce ive d to lead to the greate st n atio nal pro spe rity , as evide nc e d by the pursuit of creat iv ity fo r exam ple . While a child may be enco urage d to dire c t their own learning this must be seen within the parame t e rs of im po se d inte re st s and judgme nt s made on behalf of that child. Despite the rhe t o ric, I sugge st that childre n co nt inue to be co nside re d predom inant ly as a ho mo ge no us gro up in which the term child - c e nt re d becom e s subje c t iv e and there fore an eternally debat able term . Well - be ing must there fo re also be co nside re d as large ly subjec t iv e an d arguably direc t e d fo r the child, refle ct ing the cult ure and so cial aspe c t s of the schoo l. These in turn refle c t so ciet al and eco nom ic dem ands on Educat io n. The well - be ing mo de l do es offe r a degree of obje c t iv ity with which to then evaluat e ho w so cie t y a nd schoo ls dire ct well - be ing, fo rm ing the discussio n of subse que nt chapt e rs with part ic ular inte re st in how this relate s to childre n?s inte rac t io n in phy sic al space s and obje c ts. 1.4.1 Assessment of related research methodologies D e liv e ring mainst re am , stat e , ch ild - c e nt re d schoo ls has prov e d a frust rat io n fo r many years, phy sic ally and pedago gic ally (Egan, 2002 ) , and, as explaine d by the co nsult ant s Price Wate rho use Co o pe rs (200 7) , has no t been assiste d great ly by researc h. As a co nse que nce , Higgins et al. (200 5) indic at e that design has been prov e n to d o litt le mo re than accom mo date E ducatio n. While Nair & Fielding (200 5) reco gnise schoo ls to be co m ple x so cial inst it ut io ns effo rt s to establish the link betw ee n childre n?s outcom es and scho o l design have tende d to fo cus on the minut iae of a child?s life at schoo l, such as the im pact of wall co lo ur on erro rs (Bross & Jackso n, 198 1 ) or learning behav io ur and chair ergo nom ic s (Knight & Noy es, 199 9 ) . Fro m a rese arc h perspe ct ive , as the well- be ing mo de l allude s, the quant it at ive study of the part ic ular eleme nt s of well - be ing is pro blem at ic al; establishing the relat io nship betwe e n 3 7 enjo yme nt and self - e s te em or respe ct and so cial capital, I pro po se , is too iso lat e d and depe nde nt on many othe r facto rs. Altho ugh Higgins et al. (2005 ) no te there is a gene ral co nse nsus that the rene w al of schoo ls leads to bett er attit ude s, mo rale and behav io ur, the verdict is that schoo ls are too com ple x , c o rre spo nding with Nair & Fielding?s (200 5 , p.7 ) appraisal: ? the obv io us inte rc o nnec t e dness ? and ? the fact that the interc o nnec t e dne ss is no nline ar. That means it is nearly im po ssib le to ident ify sim ple cause - and - e ffe c t relat io nships. ? In orde r to measure the impac t of phy sic al space s and design on childre n, rese arch has arguably attem pt e d to sim plify the relat io nships which affe c t a child?s expe rie nc e and feelings at scho o l; try ing to iso lat e the part ic ular co nt ribut io n of design by inve st igat ing direc t links to co nce nt rat io n, fo r exam ple , com po unds such co nt radict io n whilst unde re st im at ing the pote nt ial subt le ty of childre n?s inte ract io n . On the othe r hand, the qualit ativ e rese arc h of Clark (20 05 ) , fo r exam ple , reinfo rce s the aspirat io nal nature of design by no t fully engaging with the cult ural im plic at io ns of childre n?s respo nse s. I n gene ral q ualit at ive rese arc h has prov e d too supe rfic ial and quant it at iv e rese arc h too specific . Thus bo th Higgins et al. (200 5 ) and PWC (20 07 ) dete rm ine that , overall, rese arc h has faile d to add any real value to a mo re affe c t ive design pro ce ss in scho o ls. Furt he rmo re , it is also arguable that the rese arc h, evide nc e d by Price Wate rho use Coo pe rs (200 7) , co nsult ant s used by the Gov e rnm e nt , has prev aric ate d over achiev em e nt as a measure because it is mo st easily capt ure d; base d on the well - be ing mo de l, this marginalise s the co nce pt of child - c e ntre d schoo ls and well- be ing, and mo reo ver betrays an unde rly ing league table mo tive . Learning from this, the rese arc h prese nt e d in this thesis do es not set out to offe r cate go ric al pro o fs; rathe r it seeks comm o n patt e rns and them es in childre n?s co m ple x well - be ing. The rese arc h will also seek to rev e al whet he r the com ple xit y illust rat e d in the well- being mo d e l is exace rbat e d or sim plifie d by the social and cult ural subje c t iv it y which schoo ls overlay upo n it. 1.4.2 Methodology T he rese arc h quest io n, artic ulat e d on page 1, refe rs to the study of childre n?s relat io nships with their phy sic al scho o l env ironm e nt and ther e fo re, fro m the outset , the meaningful part ic ipat io n of childre n has been deem e d an esse nt ial eleme nt of the rese arc h unde rt ake n. Repre se nt ing a po pularly held view (Clark , 200 2; Heppe ll et al., 2004 ) , Burke & Gro sv e nor (200 3 ) argue the im po rt anc e of hearing the child?s vo ice in the design pro ce ss and Kille e n , Evans, & Danko (20 03 ) claim the mo tiv at io nal bene fit s of invo lv ing childre n in the creat io n of their env iro nme nt . Nev e rt he le ss, on balanc e , the effec t ive invo lv em e nt of childre n in guiding the design of scho o ls which will po te nt ially accomm o date their own children is uncle ar. 3 8 As a co nse que nce , an explo rato ry study was carrie d out to ident ify a rele vant territ o ry, both of sco pe and metho do lo gy , for the thesis. The Birm ingham prim ary schoo l study took p lace at the very beginning of the rese arc h perio d and include d obse rv at io n and unst ruc t ure d inte rv ie w s with childre n leading to design expe rim e nt s within their classroo m learning env iro nme nt s. Abov e all this study prom pt e d the lite rat ure - base d discussio n o f well- be ing and po int e d stro ngly towards the influe nc e of schoo l culture and socie ty as fundame nt al facto rs affe ct ing design and its use. Furt he rmo re , the hist o rical perspe c t iv e prese nt e d later in Chapt e r 2 was also signific ant ly stee re d by the quest io ns the study raise d. Refe rring to the subse que nt cho ice of metho do lo gy , a cent ral co nclusio n of the discussio n of well - be ing and its asso c iate d mo de l is that well- be ing is com ple x and bro adly bene fits from a ho list ic study rathe r than a specific study of its eleme nt s and their inte rre lat io nship. Co nse que nt ly , this thesis prese nt s qualit at ive rese arc h em ploy e d to inv est igat e childre n?s perspectives on well - be ing, i.e. the subjec t iv it y affe ct ing the mo de l, by co nside ring the triangular relat io nship betw ee n chil dre n, their physic al scho o l env iro nm e nt and prim ary scho o l cult ure . Despit e its ethno graphic inte re st in cult ure and the applic at io n of aspec t s of pheno me no lo gy , it is mo st clo se ly allie d to a gro unde d rese arc h metho do lo gy , a metho d originally illust rat e d by Glaser & Strauss (19 67 ) in which rese arc h begins witho ut hypo t hese s and pro ce eds to inv e st igat e em erge nt theme s . Nev e rt he le ss, the prev io us sect io n refe rre d to sho rtc om ings of qualit at iv e rese arc h in this field which ma y , fo r exam ple , right ly pinpo int childre n?s need fo r social space s yet the findings do not fully co nside r this with respe c t to the nature of Educat io n. While the rese arc h metho ds prese nt e d in Chapt e rs 3 and 4 are dire c t ly info rm e d by the wo rk of Clark (200 5) and Care & Chile s (20 06 ) , the findings are then used to info rm mo re detaile d study in which the mo re subtle , subco nsc io us aspe c t s of childre n?s relat ionships with phy sic al spaces are inve st igate d. The co mbinat io n of technique s prese nt e d in Chapt e r 5 and 6 also dist inguish this rese arc h from othe rs in the field, apply ing a low lev e l of quant ifie d measurem e nt and there fo re bridging to some exte nt the gap betw ee n qualit at iv e and quant it at ive metho do lo gie s ident ifie d earlie r. In to tal, ov er 300 childre n were include d in the prim ary rese arc h. Beside s the scho o l in Birm ingham two othe r state prim ary schoo ls in So ut ham pto n and a village clo se to Ando v er were inv o lv e d. These two schoo ls prov ide d the sett ing fo r the researc h which fo rm s the co re of this thesis wit h 104 childre n taking part . By agre em e nt with the respe ct iv e headte ache rs, studie s were carrie d out with Year 1 and Year 5 childre n, also including Year 2 and Year 6 childre n if the classe s com prise d mixe d age gro ups. The age gro ups were cho se n to cov e r bo th yo unger and olde r 3 9 childre n in orde r to com pare childre n of diffe re nt ages and to assess the effe c t of incre asing fam iliarity with scho o l and its purpo se . Consiste nt with the gro unde d and phenom e no lo gic al tradit io n is a smalle r sam ple size in which mo re in - de pt h study can take place by spending a much great e r amo unt of time with childre n and also spending exte nde d tim e refle ct ing on their individual co nt ribut io n. Furt he rm o re a greate r varie ty of metho ds can also be applie d beyo nd the lim it at io ns of ano ny mo us quest io nnaire s which large r sam ple size s typic ally nece ssit at e; Co he n et al. (20 00 ) no te that sm alle r sam ple sizes are expe c te d fo r qualit at ive rese arc h. Co nsist e nt with its sam ple and appro ac h, this thesis has no t inte nde d to prese nt stat ist ic ally pr o ve n theo rie s applicable to all schoo ls but rathe r to offe r rich insight into a gro up of childre n in their phy sic al schoo l sett ing which can then be ev aluat e d in othe r schoo ls. Any ethic al issue s relat ing to co nduc t ing the rese arc h are discusse d in the relev ant chapt e rs but, overall, the obje c t iv e s and metho do lo gy applie d were appro ve d by the Buck ingham shire New Univ e rsity Ethic s Com m it t ee in March 2007 . A no table lim it at io n of the rese arc h derive s from the class po pulat io ns which gove rne d the findings. Whi le gende r and age prov e d to be valid areas upo n which to base co nclusio ns, ethnic it y and disabilit y , fo r exam ple , were not. 1.4.2.1 Chapter 3 and Chapter 4 In the tradit io n of pheno me no lo gy , which Co he n, Manio n & Mo rriso n (20 00 , p.23 ) describe as adv o c at ing ?the study of dire c t expe rie nc e take n at face value ,? Chapte rs 3 and 4 bracket , or suspe nd, the discussio n of this chapt e r and Chapt e r 2, to inv e st igat e these childre n?s perce pt io ns of well- be ing at face value . Chapt e r 4 goes on to study childre n?s co nsc io us feelings and relat io nships with physic al space s, the co nt e nt of which was only loo se ly guide d. In this way the findings are delibe rate ly gro unde d in the researc h, as adv o c at e d by Glase r & Strauss (19 67 ) . Specific ally , the prim ary rese arc h applie s content analysis , which Krippe ndo rff (20 04 , p.xv ii) describe s as analy sis ?o f the manife st and late nt co nte nt of a bo dy of comm unic at e d mate rial ..... thro ugh classific a t io n, tabulat io n and evaluat io n of its key sym bo ls and them es in orde r to asce rt ain its meaning and pro bable effe c t .? No ting also Krippe ndo rff?s co nce rns abo ut how diffe re nt media can channe l respo nse s, Chapt e r 3 and Chapt e r 4 use and crit ique a varie ty of metho ds including writ ing and draw ing designe d to elicit childre n?s tho ught s, as adv o c at e d by 4 0 Robinso n (19 94 ) . Varie t y of metho d is also endo rse d by Clark (20 05 ) in what she refe rs to as a mosaic appro ac h. 1.4.2.2 Chapter 5 and Chapter 6 By ident ify ing key theme s, the rese arc h ident ifie s the do m inant com po ne nt of childre n?s relat io nships with physic al aspe c t s of schoo l to lie in asso c iat io ns made betw ee n these place s or obje c ts and perce pt io ns of behav io ur, abilit y/ ac hiev em e nt and relat io nships with peers and adult s, in part ic ular the teache r. Furt he r discussio n of the well- be ing mo de l in Chapt e r 4 offe r s belonging as a measure of this asso c iat iv e relat io nship and signals the start of the part ially quant it at iv e analy sis co nt aine d in Chapt e rs 5 and 6. Chapt e r 5 describe s an ethno graphic technique , pho to elicit at io n, which is applie d to gauge childre n?s po sit iv e or negativ e ident ific at io n with im age s of phy sic al feat ure s of the schoo l. These indiv idual respo nse s are then used cum ulat iv e ly as an overall measure of belo nging. Harpe r (200 2) describe s phot o elicit at io n as a highly effec t ive metho d fo r inte rro gat ing the subco nsc io us, respo nding to lim it at io ns of inv e st igat ing childre n?s consc io us tho ug ht s prese nt ed in Chapt e rs 3 and 4. Childre n?s respo nse s are then mappe d against the key theme s which em erge from earlie r chapt e rs and which co rro bo rat e large ly with Chapt e r 2. These include childre n?s ratings of their own ability , behav io ur and happine ss a nd of their class so cial co nt e xt using a so cial netwo rk analy sis (Wasse rm an & Faust , 1994 ) . What this means is that respo nse s to a chimne y or a library bo o kshe lf can be com pared fo r childre n who are less po pular, or fo r those w ho belie ve they are of high abilit y , or perhaps those whom the teache r perceiv e s as behav ing poo rly . Care is obse rv e d in this analy sis to respe ct the lim it at io ns of the sm all sam ple size and to be mindful of the sho rt com ings, ident ifie d by Co he n et al. (20 00 ) , of Like rt scale s in relat io n to stat ist ical metho ds. Inst e ad lim it e d quant it at iv e analysis is applie d judic io usly in orde r to ident ify patt e rns of respo nse s help ing to establish a pict ure (By rne , 200 1) of childre n?s expe rie nc e at schoo l and how this relate s to the physic al schoo l. Impo rtant ly , anecdo t al evide nc e is also gathe re d to co rro bo rate findings, or to indic at e any mism at c h betwe e n co nsc ious respo nse s from earlie r chapt e rs and the less co nsc io u s respo nse s prese nt e d in Chapt e r 5 and 6. Discourse analysis is applie d in which childre n?s co nv e rsat io ns abo ut their phy sic al schoo l are evaluat e d in relat io n to the so cial and cult ural co nt e x t of the schoo l, as pro pose d by Coyle (19 95 ) . 4 1 1.4.2.3 Supplementary research O t he r rese arc h was also carrie d out alo ngside the co re rese arc h describe d. This include d over 20 ho urs of film ing of learning situat io ns to obse rv e childre n?s dynam ic inte rac t io n with the phy sic al space . Addit io nally design expe rim e nt s were com ple te d in which classroom furnit ure was intro duc e d or remov e d. In bo th Scho o l A and S the who le schoo l too k part in a handhe ld key pad voting study in which childre n vo te d fo r im age s of diffe re nt anim als that best repre se nt e d cha rac t e rist ic s of the school cult ure they wo uld like . This info rm at io n was used fo r childre n to design a charac te r used fo r comm unic at io n in scho o l, test ing co nce pt s of ident ity and childre n?s vo ice in schoo l affairs. Mo re gene rally many ho urs of unst ruc t ure d inte rv iew s with each of the childre n were carrie d out indiv idually . While these piece s of rese arc h were deem e d periphe ral to the main dire c t io n of the thesis, at certain po int s they are refe rre d in suppo rt of key ideas. 1.4.2.4 School Profiles A pro file of each schoo l including a descript io n of their phy sic al env iro nme nt is pro v ide d in Appe ndix 4 . Due to the perso nal nature of the research highlight ing such things as the po pularit y of indiv iduals and the way in which childre n are perce iv e d by teache rs, the ano ny m ity of the childre n and the schoo ls are prese rv e d, refe rring to them as Scho o l B (Birm ingham ) , Schoo l S (So ut ham pt o n), and Schoo l A (Andov e r) . 1.4.3 Thesis structure T his thesis is struc t ure d as fo llow s: Chapt e r 1. E v aluat es the meaning of child - c e nt re d scho o ls and, by de v e lo ping a mo de l of well - be ing, appraise s the theo ret ic al co nt ribut io n of design; Chapt e r 2. Re v ie w s the realit y of schoo l design from a hist o rical perspe c t iv e , evaluat ing the succe sse s and failings of child - c e nt re d schoo ls and the ro le of archit ec t s in leading these deve lo pm e nt s. Paralle ls are draw n with to day ?s schoo l design; Chapt e r 3. P re se nt s prim ary rese arc h in Scho o l S and Schoo l A to intro duc e childre n?s perspe c t iv e s on their own well - be ing; Chapt e r 4. P re se nt s childre n?s co nsc ious view s of aspec t s of the phy sic al schoo l and how they relat e to them . The chapter co nclude s by intro duc ing the co nce pt of belo nging as a dev e lo pme nt of the well - be ing mo de l and a signifie r of inclusio n and the po te ntial fo r lo nge r term outcome s to be achiev e d ; 4 2 Chapt e r 5. P r e se nt s an inv e st igat io n of belo nging in relat io n to the social, cult ural and phy sical co nt ex t of childre n?s scho o l. The findings are evaluat ed to pro pose crit ic al areas in which design can co nt ribute to well - be ing; Chapt e r 6. Inv e st igate s the detail of the belo nging studie s to assess how indiv idual phy sical elem e nt s of the schoo l relat e to well - be ing from the po int of view of inclusio n; Chapt e r 7. P re se nt s a discussio n of the thesis findings and pro pose s an alte rnat iv e appro ach to prim ary schoo l design. 4 3 Chapter 2: The design of schools - A perspective on history M ass educat io n originally mirrore d so ciet y ?s view that its main ro le was to co nt ro l and discipline childre n in orde r to create pliant citize ns who wo uld fit into the new indust rialize d wo rld; in short fo dde r fo r mass pro duc t io n (Dude k , 200 5, p.30 ) . 2.1 Introduction Chapt e r 1 intro duce d the co m ple x it ie s of the curre nt design debat e and co nclude d that , co nce pt ually , designing scho o ls to suppo rt well - be ing is a wo rt hy ob je c t iv e . Despit e a lack of unde rst anding and misuse of terms, Woo lne r , Hall, Wall, Higgins, Blak e & McCaughe y (200 5 ) describe t he belie f in the archit e c t ural comm unit y and the curre nt Go ve rnme nt that the physic al env iro nm e nt of the schoo l can assist po sit iv e lo ng term outco me s. Base d on the well - be ing mo de l, this wo uld seem to be theo re t ic ally valid. Howe v e r, the expre ssio n of more transfo rm at iv e go als in design brie fs, as Chapt e r 1 ident ifie d , is not clear, is depe nde nt on many othe r facto rs, and do es no t assist their realisat io n in the final design. As a result the prev io us chapt e r co nclude d that design sho uld gene rally focus on obje c t iv e s which dire c t ly influe nc e the child?s day - to - day so cial expe rie nc e , of which learning is part . Howev e r, while Chapt e r 1 ende avo ure d to clarify the discussio n by iso lat ing D esign?s co nt ribut io n, in pract ic e it was argue d that D esign?s approac h is narro w and an appre c iat io n of the so cial and cult ural influe nc e s affe c t ing schoo ls and direc t ing childre n?s well - be ing is required. Heppe ll et al. (20 04 ) pro pose d that there is a lack of kno w le dge abo ut transfo rmat iv e schoo l design arguing that ?we canno t easily ev aluat e alte rnativ e s because we have n?t built any , or at least no t many (p.31 ) . ? Base d on the discussio n in Chapt e r 1 this is predic te d to indic at e a tende nc y to view schoo l design in iso lat io n of Educat ion in a wide r sense . There fore , w hile em bark ing on a new cent ury and , inde e d , a new mille nnium tends to focus the mind fo rw ards it is sure ly im po rt ant to unde rst and this co nt ex t with respe c t to the pursuit of child - c e nt re d schoo ls; a pursuit which is far from new, as Nicho lso n (200 5) obse rve s. Despite bemo aning the limit e d transfo rm at io nal qualit ie s of the new scho o ls being built , it wo uld appe ar that the Gov e rnm ent and assoc iat e d bo die s such as CABE and RIBA are no t espe c ially keen to unde rst and why a perpet uat io n of des ign is occurring. I n this the sis it is argue d that , rathe r than igno ring and even co nde m ning the past , an appraisal of the histo ric al co nt ex t and legacy of 4 4 schoo l design will assist in unde rst anding curre nt frust rat io ns and is mo re like ly to sugge st a po te nt ial way fo rw ard. The purpo se of this Chapter there fo re is to appraise the hist o ric al fo rm of scho o ls highlight ing ho w evo lv ing co nce pt io ns of child - c e ntre d schoo ls hav e dete rm ine d the phy sic al space , its co nt e nt s and its use. This pro v ides the pro spe c t , with the bene fit of hindsight , to refle c t on an im po rt ant pract ic al relat ionship betw ee n design intent io n and use in which a gap may refle c t po or design but mo reov e r it is expe c t e d to rev e al the ov erlay ing of a cult ure and evide nc e of the perv asiv e nature of so cialisat io n, the eco nom y and a result s - base d cult ure . It is antic ipat e d that an asse ssm e nt of what can be regarde d as the subje c t iv e schoo l will indic at e areas of the well- be ing mo de l to which a child?s sense of well - be ing is dire c t e d. This appraisal of the hist oric al deve lo pm e nt of scho o ls begins in 1870 . Weine r (199 4 ) argue s that the adve nt of com pulso ry educat io n as a result of the Eleme nt ary Educat io n Act 187 0 has had a last ing influe nc e on the fo rm of Educat io n ever since . A hist o ric al rev iew also prov ide s the oppo rt unity to asse ss the ro le of archit e ct ure in assist ing the dev e lo pme nt and fo cus of child - c e nt re d schoo ls. It wo uld be easy to co nclude fro m the lite rat ure that scho o l design is a quest io n of archite c t ure . Howeve r, t he co nt ribut io n of archit e c t ure beyo nd buildings with adequat e day light ing and vent ilat io n, as Higgins et al. (2005 ) adv ise , is unce rt ain and, with an enduring fo rm and lim ite d inro ads into child - c e nt re d obj e c t iv es, this require s evaluat io n. 2.1.1 1870-1902 - Victorian Board schools 2.1.1.1 Intentions T he 1870 Elem e nt ary Educat io n Act, fo r the first tim e , require d all childre n betwe e n the ages of fiv e and thirt e e n to atte nd schoo l (D ix o n & Muthe s ius, 197 8) . Weine r (199 4) ident ifie s seve ral fact o rs which led to the po lit ic al mov e to co m pulso ry educat io n including the perce ive d decline in Brit ish manufac t uring powe r and unfavo urable com pariso ns with othe r, part ic u larly , Germ anic natio ns. In addit io n, as a result of the vario us Facto ry Acts, which rest ric t e d the em ploy me nt of childre n, it was felt nece ssary to pro v ide an alte rnat ive activ ity fo r childre n (Birche no ugh, 2008 ) . Mo re ov e r, i n 1867 the Refo rm Act subst ant ially increase d the num be r of wo rking class men who co uld vo te (Weine r, 1994 ) and while there was signific ant fear of a powe rful, educat e d wo rk ing class othe rs, like the industrialist Ro be rt Lo we, believ ed that ?the lowe r classe s ought to be educat e d to discharge the dutie s cast upo n them (Rube nst e in, 196 9 , p.5 ) .? In fact , Weine r (199 4) 4 5 indic at e s the perce pt io n at the tim e that Educat io n held the key to sev e ral pressing eco nom ic and so cial issue s, no ting a ?sense of urge nc y , near panic ...? and highlight ing the wo rds of W E Fo rste r who ident ifie d the so cial thre at to the natio n of ?inv ading arm ie s of igno ranc e, mise ry and dest it u t io n (199 4 , p.2 2& 23) .? It is po ssible to see why Dude k (200 0 ) ident ifie s Educat io n as a to o l fo r co nt ro lling and using the masse s fo r vario us ends and clearly childre n in stat e Educat io n were co nside re d as a homo ge no us gro up as oppo se d to indiv iduals. Equally , howev e r, the need fo r a basic educat ion of lite racy and num e racy , kno w n as the Thre e Rs, meant that there was no reaso n to diffe re nt iat e betw ee n childre n and many , like Weine r (19 94 ) , saw the Vict o rian Bo ard Scho o ls as a major step fo rwards fo r demo c racy an d equality . 2.1.1.2 Design, use and well-being T he 1870 Act, result e d in a ?bo om ? in schoo l building ( Inst it ut e of Educat io n, 2007, p.1 ) . In 187 4 Ro bso n, the first archit e ct of the Lo ndo n Schoo l Bo ard, publishe d School Architecture (187 7) which, on behalf of the Lo ndo n Schoo l Bo ard, prese nte d a blue print fo r schoo l buil ding design and wo uld go on to charact e rise the pro gram me . Despite claim s which ident ify Ro bso n as the ? first designe r to marry educat io nal theo ry to archit e c t ural pract ice in any meaningful way (Dude k , 200 0 , p.1 5) ,? the Inst it ute of Educat io n (20 07 ) argue s that ? des igns were bas e d more upo n soc ial and eco nom ic dem ands than educ atio nal theo ry (p.1 ) .? Certainly, fro m the dis c uss io n so far seeing these motivatio ns separate ly would seem to be sim plis tic and yet, argu ably , ende m ic in the lite rature . The scho o l bo ards were face d with a pressing need fo r the accomm o dat io n of a gro up of the po pulat io n which had not prev io usly rece iv e d any fo r m al educat io n; Dude k (2000 ) claim s this manife st e d itse lf in co ncerns of co nt ro l, discipline and accommo dat io n rathe r than of educat io n. Co nt ro l was clearly ev ide nt in the designs including, for exam ple , the separat io n of boy s and girls and the bo lt e d do wn benche s (Seabo rne & Lowe , 1977 ) . Refe re nce is made by Dixo n & Muthe sius (197 8) to the num be r of sto rey s require d to ho use the incre asing num be rs of pupils, p art ic ularly in urban lo cat io ns where gro und space was lim ite d; five sto rey s in Ende ll Stree t Scho o l in Lo ndo n allo we d fo r one tho usand fiv e hundre d pupils to be scho o le d. Co nse que nt ly many of the schoo ls repre se nt ing the era were high and do m inant buildings which were , co nv e nie nt ly may be , co nsiste nt with the aest he tic inte nt io n of design ident ifie d by Seabo rne & Lowe (197 7 ) in that era. 4 6 2.1.1.2.1 The look of the school building Arc hit e c t ure, by nature , deals with an exte rnal and an inte rnal im pac t and to day one can see a go v ernme nt keen to stre ss the im po rt anc e of this aesthe t ic dim e nsio n in scho o l design; the exem plar design brie f make s a direc t co rre lat io n betw e e n the exte rio r of the scho o l and childre n?s aspirat io ns, inspirat io n, motiv at io n and self- e ste em (DfES, 2003 b) . In refe rring to aest he t ic s , thro ugho ut , this thesis ident ifie s with Pye?s (199 5 ) obse rv at io n of ?do ing useless wo rk on useful things? which, if we did no t do , ?o ur life inde e d wo uld be poo r, nasty and brut ish (p.1 3 ) .? In to day?s co nt ex t it is widely held that the outw ard appe aranc e and entranc e to a schoo l po we rfully sugge st what one might expec t to enco unt e r within and stro ngly influe nc e a last ing im pre ssio n of the place . Walt e rs & Co he n (200 3) note this to be a signifie r of the ?to ne and etho s? of the scho o l. The Go v e rnm e nt maint ains that ?t he prese nc e or abse nce of enthusiasm fo r and oppo rt unit ie s fo r learning can be sub - c o nsc io usly ?read? in the fro nt age , the foy er ...(D fE S, 200 3 b, p.4 ) .? This is co nsist e nt with archit e c t ural belie fs in the Victo rian era. The Victo rian Bo ard schoo ls were co nside re d ?highly fashio nable ? (D ixo n & Muthe sius, 1978 , p.2 3 9) and, thro ugh the archit e c t ure , Seabo rne & Lo we (19 77 ) reco gnise that it was their inte nt io n to im pre ss bo th the childre n and the co mmunit y . In fact the archit e ct ure , whet he r Go thic or Quee n Ann, the co mmo n sty le s, was seen as com pe nsat io n fo r the drearine ss of childre n?s hom e s; it was felt that ? schoo l building sho uld co nt ribut e to the aest het ic sensibility of the child by show ing him standards beyo nd tho se of his own hom e (Seabo rne & Lo we , 197 7 , p.4 ) .? Exte rnal dom inanc e , there fo re , was in keeping with the inte nde d im pac t of the buildings and the message s they were to co nv e y refle c t e d the language of aspirat io n, inspirat io n and co nt em po rary design: ?f re que nt ly building in slum s, Ro bso n and the bo ard were dete rm ine d that these schoo ls ? and ?t he ir elev at io ns, with fan cy gable s, co lo urful brickw o rk, and terraco t t a ornam e nt at io n ... sho uld im pre ss their yo ung users and their fam ilie s (D ix o n & Muthe sius, 197 8, p.23 9 ) .? Sim ilarly in Birm ingham , as no te d in the Pall Mall Gaze tt e in 189 6, ?... yo u may gene rally recognise a Bo ard schoo l by it being the best building in the neighbo urho o d (Seaborne & Lo we , 197 7 , p.1 0 ) .? Acco rdingly , there fo re , there was a delibe rat e use of aest he t ic s and sym bo lism to in spire childre n and their pare nt s which, could bo th attrac t childre n to the building but also engende r a sense of respe c t to a highe r autho rit y . Signific ant also was the influe nc e of the churc h. The scho o l building perio d was signifie d, in Lo ndo n at least , by a co nsc io us shift away fro m explic it religio us influe nce in Educat io n, which was 4 7 clearly illust rat e d in the archit e c t ure; Seabo rne (19 71 , p.2 2 1) sugge st s scho o ls , at the tim e , were seco nd only to churc he s ?as a means of spre ading religio us view s amo ng the rapidly grow ing po pulat io n ,? yet Go uld (20 06 ) describe s Bo nne r Stre et Prim ary Schoo l in Bethnal Gree n as a dist inc t ive and co nsc io usly secular Quee n Anne sty le . This is illust rat e d in Figure 2 - 1 . Figure 2-1 Bonner Street primary school, Tower Hamlets, London. Photograph: Graham Turner. Source: Weaver (2006) W he t he r or no t the Vict o rian Bo ard schoo ls did manage to inspire and raise aspirat io ns, the perce pt io n that the exte rior schoo l can hav e this effe ct endure s to day . O?Go rmon (199 8) refe rs to Vitruv ius who deem e d that a building must be judge d in relat io n to funct io n, struc t ure and beaut y , which prov ide s the basis fo r CABE?s (200 5 ) curre nt asse ssm e nt of schoo ls. 2.1.1.2.2 Classrooms Ro bso n (18 77 ) designe d scho o ls in which classroom s wo uld generally feed off a cent ral hall, and which allow e d the head teache r to easily obse rv e lesso ns. Spat ially , the co nce pt of the central hall predom inat e d but there were som e exam ple s of classro om s off co rrido rs, d epe nding upo n the site and the archite c t . While there were inst anc e s of this fo rm at prio r to the 1870 Act, Seabo rne (197 1) note s that schoo ls were typic ally much sm aller, ofte n com prising just one room . The classroom s yst em was deriv e d from the exam ple of Prussian schoo ls which, despit e Ro bso n (187 7) arguing the system was overly milit arist ic and describing them as a ?series of sm all barrac k s (p.7 1 ) ,? becam e the dom inant archit ec t ural elem e nt of the Bo ard schoo ls (Weiner, 1994 ) . These were designe d to acco mmo dat e , on average , sixt y childre n (Do ddingt o n & Hilto n, 2007 ) . Do ddingto n & Hil to n (20 07) , howev e r, maint ain that Ro bso n?s less favo urable view s of classroom s 4 8 were overridde n there fo re highlight ing that even as the classroo m syst em emerge d on its prese nt scale , it was bo rn am idst crit ic ism s from its chie f archit e c t . Refe rring to the classroom lay o ut , an exam ple of which is show n in Figure 2 - 2 , Jordan (198 7) no te s that the ?roo m was undiffe re nt iat e d fo r activ it y, but teache rs? space was conside re d sacre d (p.1 79 ) .? The childre n?s furnit ure in Board scho o ls typic ally com prise d woo de n benche s and desks which were jo ine d with cast iro n metalwo rk . These were ofte n fixe d to the gro und and affo rde d litt le com fort or mov eme nt and set in rows facing fo rw ards to wards the teache r?s desk and a black bo ard (Seabo rne & Lowe , 197 7) . Despit e the basic nature of the furnit ure , Ro bso n (18 77 ) place d im po rt ance on the qualit y of its manufact ure , making the co nne c t io n betw e e n its quality and the degree to which childre n might value it and, co nse que nt ly , their educat io n. The exte nt of the furnit ure and part ic ularly the obje c ts was gene rally lim ite d, altho ugh Lawn (200 5) ment io ns that obje ct lesso ns were cent ral to the pedago gy of the day and com pulso ry by 189 5 . While obje c t s varie d, typic al feat ures include d a glo be , abacus, slate s fo r writ ing and ofte n a display cabine t which som et im es co nt aine d stuffe d anim als (Law n, 2005 ) . Figure 2-2 Replication of typical bench and desk furniture of the Board schools. Photograph. Source: http://www.danum-photos.co.uk/pages/beamish_board_school.htm 4 9 2.1.1.2.3 Well-being In the co nt ex t of the well - be ing mo de l and to day ?s conside rat io ns, there are many way s in which the Bo ard scho o ls might be seen to be lim it e d in their fo cus on the child. Weine r (199 4) ident ifies the ro le of the scho o ls to be predom inant ly co nce nt rat e d on teaching the 3 Rs and no t abo ut childre n?s bro ader well- be ing. In th e co nt e xt of the day a child?s success in this area can be co nside re d child - c e nt re d, albe it narrow ly , altho ugh scho o ls were perhaps gov e rne d as much by the inspe c to rat e of the Bo ards which Mitche ll (19 96 ) obse rv es dete rm in e d funding base d on childre n?s result s. Despite this, Burke & Gro sve no r?s (20 08 ) caut io n of reading the past ?shape d by curre nt co nce rns and unde rst andings (p.2 8 ) ? is reso nant and it is diffic ult to escape the fo llow ing declarat io n of Sherlo c k Ho lm e s in the literat ure surro unding schoo l design: ?Light ho use s my boy ! Beaco ns of the future ! Capsule s with hundre ds of bright litt le seeds in each, out of which will spring the wise r bett e r England... (D oy le , 199 2 , p.4 20 ) . ? Ho wev e r, in to day ?s co nt ext and with furt he r refe re nce to the mo de l, it is diffic ult to see how so cial inte rac t io n, relax at ion, expre ssio n, and enjoym ent , as exam ple s fro m the well - be ing mo de l, are explic it ly enco urage d by eithe r the design or the organisat io n of the scho o l; thus illust rat ing ho w co nce rns of well - be ing can be stro ngly dire c te d by the cult ure of the schoo l. The layo ut of the classroom furnit ure overt ly disc o urage d so cial inte rac t io n, giv ing childre n im me diat e so cial acce ss to just the two childre n eithe r side . This inte rac t io n wo uld hav e been stric t ly co nt ro lle d and disappro v e d of: Do ddingt o n & Hilt o n (200 7 , p.2 1) refe r to the maint e nance of discipline by ?gre at stric tne ss and perpet ual vigilance .? With the classro om s designe d fo r sixt y childre n (Mitc he ll, 199 6) on average , co nside rat io n of the childre n as indiv iduals may appe ar in to day?s c o nt ex t to be no n - e x ist e nt . Fo rm a senso ry po int of view the objec t lesso ns can be argue d to have been mainly visual and rare ly enco uraging childre n to mov e and to to uch objec t s: ?....t he inst ruc t io n becam e , on the who le , mere ly verbal, and the pupil rem ain e d passiv e (Raym o nt , 1937 , p.1 43 ) .? Even the outdoo r play space was care fully manage d. Bo y s and girls wo uld typic ally have their own play gro und with a separat e entranc e and in Ro bso n?s design of a nurse ry scho o l in Figure 2 - 3 it can be seen that play gro unds were ofte n view e d as marching gro unds. Despit e refle c t ing the shado w of war and the desire fo r fit and discipline d tro o ps to prot e ct the em pire, this is no t ho wev e r inco nsist e nt with a child?s healt h and, in relat io n to the well - be ing mo de l, the need fo r 5 0 physic al activ ity . It also indic at e s ho w mo tiv at io n fo r an indiv idual?s well- be ing might be co nside re d duplic it o us, yet as Chapt e r 1 ident ifie d, deriv e d from so ciet y ?s perce iv e d needs. It can also be obse rve d that the dist inc t io n betw e e n play in the outdoo r space s and the serio us busine ss of learning indoo rs is evide nt in the design, ano t he r legac y which the curre n t pro gramm es are try ing to addre ss. Figure 2-3 Robson's nursery design illustrating the marching area. Source: Robson (1877) Co nc e rn fo r the childre n and their dev e lo pme nt may be lim it e d in to day ?s inte rpre t at io n but it has also been com pare d unfavo urably by Weine r (199 4) with pract ic e in the Unite d Stat e s and Germ any fo r exam ple . Weine r (19 94 ) state s that ?What em erges fro m an exam inat io n of infant s? educat io n and schoo l accomm o dat io n is a sharp discre panc y betwe e n the avowe d co nce rn fo r the child and the abse nce of educat io nal theo ry info rm e d by any serio us st udy of child behav ior and dev e lo pme nt (p.1 20 ) .? Weine r (19 94 ) is part ic ularly consc io us of the wo rk of Friedric h Fro e be l (178 2 ? 18 52 ) , the mast e rm ind behind the kinde rgarte n mo ve me nt which Do ddingt o n & Hilto n (200 7 , p.14 ) describe as ?Perhaps the most po werful inst it ut io nal fram e wo rk ever inv e nt e d to em bo dy and prom ot e child - c e nt re d ideas.? Ro ss (20 00) argue s that Froe be l, alo ng with Pest alo zzi, acknow le dge d the so cial nature of the child and im port ant ly ident ifie d learning as a so cial activ it y . 2.1.1.3 Review T he child - c e nt re d motiv at io ns during this signific ant perio d of schoo l design, within the social, eco nom ic and po lit ic al co nt e x t of the day , are unde niable yet narro w in to day ?s co nt ex t . The maint e nance of the classroo m env iro nm e nt as a sett ing fo r visual and aural learning in which 5 1 mov eme nt was rest ric te d has signific ant repe rc ussio ns to day ( disc usse d furt he r in Sect io n 2.1 .4 .2 ) . Altho ugh Wo o lne r et al. (20 05 ) like n to day ?s scho o l design mo st with the po st Seco nd Wo rld War era (See 2.1 .3 ), there are many paralle ls with the Vict orian Bo ard schoo ls. The po sit io ning of schoo ls as cent ral inst it ut ions crit ic al to the comm unity , as is the inte nt io n to day , pro bably enco urage s an obse rv e d exte rio r focus in design. Finally , Gardne r (19 98 ) estim ate s the num be r of teache rs who cam e into the pro fe ssio n fo llo w ing the 1870 Act treble d within 30 years, a stat ist ic which also include s the replac eme nt of many pupil teache rs. As a result the deve lo pm e nt of the physic al env iro nm e nt co uld not be seen as an organic evo lut io n which invo lve d t he teache rs and with the env iro nm e nt pre - dat ing the mainst re am pro fe ssio n there is arguably an endem ic cult ural acce pt anc e of the phy sic al fo rm, evide nce d in the study scho o ls. 2.1.2 1902-1945 ? Including open air schools 2.1.2.1 Intentions At the turn of the 20 th Cent ury there was a dete rm ined mo ve me nt to wards schoo ls which place d great e r value on and promo t e d the healt h of childre n in which Wo o ds (200 0 ) no te s that the medic al repe rc ussio ns of the indust rial rev o lut io n were being felt in urban areas part ic ularly . The Bo ard schoo ls were co nside re d to be poo rly lit and vent ilat e d and it was believ ed that they co nt ribut e d to childre n?s respirat o ry pro ble m s (Burke & Gro sve no r, 2008 ) . Altho ugh Chapt e r 1 ident ifi e d healt h as falling within well- be ing, co nce rns might no w be viewe d once again as duplic ito us. Whit e side (19 88 ) no te s that they were derive d from a fear that many men were not of suffic ie nt healt h to fight or suppo rt indu st ry , highlight e d during the Bo er War and in the perio d of po lit ical tensio n in Euro pe prio r to the First Wo rld War. While it wo uld seem there fo re that mo tiv at io ns fo r childre n?s well- be ing are no t entire ly altruist ic , this was a respo nse to what were perc e ive d as extreme needs. As a com pariso n, sim ilar deve lo pm e nt s in Franc e indic at e d that mo tiv at io n fo r healt h, and healt hie r scho o ls, was linke d to the maint e nanc e of racial purit y (Rey , 191 2 ) : a motiv at ing facto r in many Euro p e an co unt ries at the tim e but dubio us when asse sse d in to day ?s co nt e xt . The resultant open air schoo ls, as they became kno w n, co nce nt rate d on the pro v isio n of day light and fresh air and co nse quent ly challe nge d archit ec t ural preco nc e pt io ns abo ut how scho o l s sho uld 5 2 look. As intim ate d abov e , the mov em e nt occurre d inte rnat io nally and Hert zbe rge r (200 8 ) , describing Duiker?s famo us open air scho o l in Am st e rdam ( Figure 2 - 4 ), also indic at e s the inte re st in hygie ne and schoo l design which suppo rts it. This com pare s with earlie r, less urban sty le s repre se nte d by Uffculme Scho o l (19 11 ) , fo r exam ple , in Figure 2 - 5 o n page 5 4 . Figure 2-4 Duiker's open air school Amsterdam 1930. Photograph. Source: http://www.columbia.edu/cu/gsapp/BT/EEI/HEATLOAD/heatload.html 2.1.2.2 Design, use and well-being T he design brie f of the open ai r schoo l, fo llo w ing the tradit io n of the Board scho ols, arguably co nt inue d to offer the archit e c t a lim it e d test in term s of pedago gic al and child - c e nt re d am bit io ns. Howev e r, it would appe ar that , on the basis of healt h, the opening up of the schoo l inadv e rt e nt ly affe c te d differe nt so cial aspe c t s of the well- be ing mo de l. Gree ne (20 09 , p.10 ) , who is gene rally po sit ive in her po rt rayal, describe s the sett ing: 5 3 The cent e rpie ce s of the struc t ure were eight indiv idual p av ilio n classro om s. Their glass walls were retrac t able on thre e side s, and the vent ilatio n syst em allo we d a curt ain of warm air to pro te c t the childre n fro m co ld at all tim e s. The pav ilio ns were suppo rt e d by a netw o rk of glass buildings which pro v ide d facilit ies fo r bathing, show e ring, and medic al exam s. Exte nsiv e park - lik e gro unds perm it t e d classe s to be held outside perio dic ally . Childre n nappe d in the garde n or the so larium s and were pro v ide d with rich, no urishing meals in open, airy ro om s. This exam ple built in 1934 may have ov erc ome so me of the struct ural and funct io nal challe nges of the building struc t ure expe rie nc e d in the earlie r open air scho o ls; the free zing of ink in inkw e lls (Hilt o n, 200 6 ; Co llins, 199 8) is test am e nt to the archite c t s? ende av o urs to inve st igat e new mate rials including metals, glass and, so far, unuse d const ruc t io n metho ds. The designs fo cuse d on the basic eleme nt s of schoo l env iro nm e nt s, i.e. air and light and linke d to this, hygie ne . Rese arc h h as since vindic at e d this quest in schoo l design (Higgins et al., 2005 ) . Natural light is ofte n highlight e d as a signific ant co nt ribut o r to stude nt achie ve me nt as a result of its bio lo gic al effe c ts (Chile s, 2005 ; Eart hm an, 2004 ) . Altho ugh the evide nc e is no t unanim o us, Higgins et al. (200 5 ) co nclude that light ing can affe ct moo d and attit ude and maxim ising the use of natural day light is to day co nside re d a fundame nt al require me nt of the learning env iro nme nt . Ho wev e r Higgins et al. (20 05 ) also maint ain that the supple m e nt ary use of artific ial light is a nece ssity in the UK?s clim act ic co ndit io ns. Where as the Bo ard schoo ls maint aine d a rigid dist inc t io n betw ee n indoo r and outdo o r space , open air schoo ls by nature dev e lo pe d the princ iple of opening the schoo l up to the outdo o rs and making this bo undary less define d. There was a signific ant shift in co nce pt io ns of schoo l archit e c t ure with three out of the fo ur classroom walls being predom inant ly glass and retrac t able , and a subt le shift in the furnit ure saw gradual intro duc t io n of woo de n chairs in scho o ls (Chate le t , 200 8 ) . In addit io n to well - lit and well- v e nt ilat e d buildings, the po sit ive im pac t note d on healt h , and mo re gene rally well- being, of the Swedish and Danish forest s chools is rece nt evide nc e put fo rw ard by Bent se n, Mygind & Randrup (200 9 ) o f the bene fit s of this appro ac h . 5 4 Figure 2-5 Uffculme open air school 1911. Photograph. Source: Chatelet (2008) T he early 191 1 exam ple of Uffculm e Schoo l in the West Midlands sho w n in Figure 2 - 5 demo nst rate s a vast ly differe nt , pav ilio n - sty le archit e ct ure fro m the Bo ard schoo ls and one which appe ars to have had an auto mat ic effe ct on othe r aspe c t s of the design. Altho ugh fresh air was prim arily their rem it , this thesis maint ains that archite c t s co uld no t help but challe nge the pedago gy even if it was simply to co nt e st stat ic learning inflic t e d by the bo lt e d down benche s of the Bo ard scho o ls. The mere fact that classro om s were opene d up and so me lesso ns were perfo rm e d outdo o rs meant that furnit ure wo uld need to be mov e d. Respo nse s were diffe re nt in diffe re nt schoo ls and also diffe re nt acro ss the inte rw ar perio d. While the sty le of furnit ure neede d to be relax e d to intro duc e mo bility , Figure 2 - 6 illust rat e s the transit io n from fixe d heav y woo de n benche s and desks to freest anding chairs and table s. The furnit ure is ofte n cum be rso me ho wev e r and at odds with the sense of free dom which the lo cat io ns affo rde d. Despite an ideal oppo rt unit y to suppo r t the inv e st igat iv e nature of childre n?s learning highlight e d by Ro usse au (200 4 ) and Dewe y (19 30 ) , there is co nside rable pho t o graphic evide nce (see overle af) indic at ing that ro ws of furnit ure were ofte n lite rally shifted outside and the didac t ic sty le and metho d of teaching was unaffe ct e d. The open air scho o l in Birm ingham , depic t e d in Figure 2 - 6 , illust rat e s that som e teache rs did ho wev e r challe nge the acce pt e d metho ds, in this case abando ning the desk com ple te ly and locat ing chairs in a ho rse sho e . McNam ara & Waugh (199 3) and Marx , Fuhre r & Hart ig (199 9) have since argue d the com m unic at ive merit s of this type of layo ut . 5 5 Figure 2-6 Contrasts in the use of open air schools in Birmingham 1911. Photograph. Source: Wilmot & Saul (1998) and St James? Park, London 1934. Photograph. Source: http://arts.guardian.co.uk/pictures/image/0,8543,-10204514616,00.html It is rele v ant to note here that the teache rs, wo rk ing with sim ilar phy sic al design can dire c t a child?s well- be ing in very diffe re nt way s. The open air schoo ls had prese nt e d an oppo rt unity thro ugh a relax e d archit e c t ure and furnit ure to pursue a broade r child - ce nt re d agenda than just healt h. Ho we ve r, evide n t ly the bene fits of the design were not take n serio usly beyo nd the original inte nt io n of prom ot ing healt h and the open air schoo ls faile d to establish them se lv e s as places fo r childre n who were no t unwe ll. Their dem ise cam e as the buildings aged and the po pulat io n was deeme d to be healt hie r (Dude k , 200 0 ) . Arguably , new building technique s enable d a healthy return to the classroo m . 2.1.2.3 Developing ideas about child-centred education As the Bo ard schoo ls were emerging and, late r, as the open air schoo ls began to be deve lo pe d for less healt hy childre n, a philo so phic al debat e was taking place which em brac e d much bro ade r child - c e nt re d ideas. Up until this po int it may be co nside re d that the inte re st s of schoo ls reside d in attainme nt and healt h within a co nt ro lling cult u re . Ho wev e r pro gressive ideas challe nge d the Bo ard schoo ls? pedago gy in a way that open air schoo ls did no t. Spence r, altho ugh alre ady discre dit e d fo r, amo ng othe r reaso ns ident ifie d by Egan (2002 ) , his unpalat able views on the educat io n of the wo rking cla sse s and suffrage , inspired Dewe y to publish a serie s of pape rs at the turn of the cent ury which Egan maint ains pro v ide d a co nv inc ing and co he re nt plat fo rm fo r the ideas of many progressive educat io nalist s. The esse nce of these ideas was base d on the self - dire c t e d, inv e st igat ive nature of a child?s learning which, it can be argue d, match the curre nt am bit io ns of perso nalise d learning and illust rat e that we are still struggling to intro duc e a very old co nce pt . 5 6 A num be r of pro gre ssiv e educat io nalist s, inde pe nde nt of the mainst re am , emerge d to inv e st igat e child - c e nt re d philo so phie s . S om e like Isaac ?s Malt ho use Schoo l were mo re expe rim e nt al , as Dude k (20 00 ) no te s, than othe rs such as Summ e rhill Scho o l describe d by Neill ( 20 06 ) , which co nt inue s to operat e to day. It is notable that in bo th Neill?s acco unt of Sum me rhill and Dude k ?s (200 0) acco unt of Malt ho use Schoo l , bo th paid scant atte nt io n to the delibe rat e phy sic al env iro nm e nt . The fo rm al reco gn it io n of such pro gre ssiv e ideas in the mainst re am schoo l system too k som e tim e in itse lf, appe aring as Gillard (200 7) po int s out notably in Hado w ?s r epo rt co nce ntrat ing on the prim ary schoo l publishe d in 193 1 . The po lit ic al apprec iat io n of the needs of the child to fo llo w their learning inst inct ive and indiv idual inte re st s was signific ant in the dev e lo pm ent of child - c e nt re d schoo ls: ?the re is to o litt le which helps childre n to dire c t ly stre ngt he n and enlarge their inst inc t ive ho ld on the co ndit io ns of life by enric hing, illum inat ing and giv ing po int to their gro w ing expe rie nce (Hadow , 1931 , p.9 3 ) .? Howev e r, these ideas to ok much lo nge r to find any artic ulat io n in teaching pract ic e , and design fo r that matte r, and the mo st signific ant change Gillard (200 7) attribut e s to Hadow is the creat io n of two tiers in primary educat io n separat ing infant s and junio rs. Subse que nt to Hadow and prio r to Wo rld War II, the fo cus on prov iding childre n with the oppo rt unity of seco ndary scho o l educat io n predom inat e d which Seabo rne & Lowe (197 7) maint ain defle c te d mo tiv atio n away from child - c e nt red ideas . Addit io nally , a now fam iliar crit ic ism lev e lle d at the pursuit of exam inat io n result s was also cite d as a reaso n why schoo ls did no t make any signific ant adv anc e s: ?Fo r all prim ary scho o ls, howev e r child - c e nt red their inte nt io ns, the great issue lo om e d of the ?scho larship? exam inat io n at age 11 (Doddingt o n & Hilt o n, 200 7 , p.2 4) .? The archite c t ural fo cus of this perio d was also argu e d by Saint (198 7 ) to be driv en by the availabilit y of new mate rials and technique s, including an inte rest in the aest he t ics of glass. In this way time has arguably strippe d the rhet o ric fro m Fry and Gro pius? reno w ne d Im pingt o n Co lle ge (192 9) , illust rat e d in Figure 2 - 7 , to rev e al scale and style rathe r than pedago gic or child - c e nt re d inte re st s as design inte nt ions. Gree ne (20 09 ) refle ct s this view that beyo nd the co mm unic at io n the subst ance was ofte n lacking describing the open air schoo l in Sure sne s as ?pre c ipit at e d on an irrat io nal, sym bo lic fait h in the powe r of harne ssing sunlight (p.1 0 ) .? 5 7 Figure 2-7 Impington Village College 1936-1939. Architect: Walter Gropius & Maxwell Fry. Photograph. Source: http://www.overgrownpath.com/2007_11_01_archive.html T he re fo re , altho ugh there was a co nce rt e d inte llec t ual debat e abo ut child - c e nt red schoo ls, the beginning of the 20 th Cent ury and the inte rw ar years illust rat e d a rest ric t e d applic at io n of childre n?s bro ader well- be ing to Educat io n or design. 2.1.2.4 Review D e spite their dem ise , open - air schoo ls pert ine nt ly dem o nst rate d an alte rnat ive to the archit e c t ure of the Board scho o ls. They also allo we d a subse que nt relax at io n of furnit ure which was a result of the buildings? fo rm , indic at ing the relatio nship betwe e n archit e ct ure and furnit ure . Furt he rmo re , it was significant that the Hado w Repo rts reco gnise d the grow ing debat e abo ut pro gre ssiv e philo so phies in Educat io n and adde d a po lit ic al vo ice to the suppo rt of child - c e nt re d schoo ls. Howev e r, there were num e ro us reaso ns why actual applic at io n in mainst re am educat io n was highly lim ite d and slow. Relev ant ly these include d the prio rit isat io n of test ing of childre n and the establishme nt of seco ndary educat io n. Arguably bo th of these facto rs exte nde d the exist ing cult ure , which was lim it e d in its appre c iat io n of well- be ing, to a much bigge r p o pulat io n of childre n, making late r rev isio n all the mo re diffic ult . 5 8 2.1.3 1945 onwards ? Including open plan schools 2.1.3.1 Intentions T he Hadow Repo rts had manage d to bring the bro ader child - c e nt re d discussio n into mainst re am po lic y debat e but, at the tim e , it had f aile d to be graspe d. As well as the issues prev io usly raise d, there lacke d an applic able inte lle c t ual hoo k to rende r these child - c e nt re d ideas pract ic al; the lo om ing prospe c t of Wo rld War II also hinde re d any real pro gre ss. Mainstre am educat io n there fo re c o nt inue d to ev ade t he mo re pro gre ssiv e tho ught s of Dewe y (19 30 ) , let alo ne the radic al wo rk of A S Neill (Neill, 2006 ) and Isaac s (Dudek , 2000 ) which allo w e d childre n signific ant free dom in dete rm ining their own learning . Howev e r, Gillard (198 7) point s out that the Hado w Repo rt s had virt ually laid the fo undat io ns fo r the Plow de n Repo rt of 1967 and, unlik e Hado w, the Plo w de n Repo rt was adv ant age d by a num be r of fact o rs. First ly , Jam e s (20 07 ) ident ifie s Piage t to be its single greate st influe nc e . T he educat io nal key which enable d a dete rm ine d dialo gue and inv est igat io n of child - c e nt re d schoo ls was affo rde d by Piage t (197 5 ) who prov ide d a subst ant ia l and scie nt ific im pe t us to a mov em e nt which Wo o d (19 98 ) no te d neede d a frame wo rk to mov e fo rwards . Piage t (19 75 ) dete rm ine d that childre n dev e lo p in stage s and that educat io n should be organise d to refle ct these stage s. Tradit io nally educat io n was struc t u re d who lly aro und age but Piage t pro po se d that childre n reach these diffe re nt stages at diffe re nt time s. Piage t ?s theo ry agree d with the naturalist ic appro ac h pro po se d by Dewey (193 0) ; he describe d childre n as little scientists in reco gnit io n of the way they will inst inc t iv e ly inv est igat e and learn and argue d that educat io n sho uld enable this natural pro ce ss to occur. Piage t (19 75 ) was adding well respec t e d scie nc e to suppo rt ideas which had been post ulat e d by Ro usseau (200 4) many years befo re . Piaget (197 5) was clear that basing learning on the tradit io nal educat io nal fo rm ula of seeing and list e ning was who lly inade quat e . He, as Dixo n (20 04 , para. 17 ) observ e s: ... saw that the tradit io nal "deliv e ry " mo de l of teaching left the real inte llec t ual dev e lo pme nt of childre n large ly unto uc he d. It denie d them first - hand explo rat ion, the creat io n and test ing of hypo t he se s, and did no t allo w fo r the vital proce sse s of assim ilat io n and accommodat io n. Seco ndly , Plo w de n (196 7 ) refle c te d the po lit ical co - o pe rat io n of the po st - W ar perio d. The co llabo rat io n betw e e n archit e c t s and educat io nalist s was sym bo lic of this gene ral sense of acco rd, know n as the Post -War Consensus (Bullo ck , 200 2 ) . In addit io n the rest ric t io ns on priv ate 5 9 archit e c t ural pract ice mentio ne d by Saint (198 7 ) meant that the schoo l building pro gramme was much mo re cent rally co nt ro lle d and co he siv e altho ugh, in the light of to day ?s conce rns P. Co nne ll repre se nt ing PCP highlig ht s a ?dange r that such an appro ac h co uld co nst rain innov at io n leading to a one size fit s all appro ac h ( pe rso nal comm unic at io n, February 23, 2009 ) .? The eco no m ic circum st ance s meant that schoo ls neede d to be deliv e re d cheaply ; imm e diate ly afte r Wo rld War II huts were co nside re d to be the imm e diate so lut io n to the lack of mo ney in the face of scho o l sho rt age s and war dam age (Bullo ck , 200 2 ) . Saint (198 7 ) describes the subse que nt prefabric at e d system s which evo lve d, such as CLASP and SCAL A, predom inant ly a dire c t respo nse to the e co nom ic co nst raints. At the time , the post - W ar Hert fo rdshire sty le spo ke fo r itse lf, sending clear message s of inno v at io n (Saint , 1987 ) . The building technique s enable d a varie ty of new spat ial layo ut s which mainly co nv e rte d co rrido r space into artic ulat e d share d learning spaces. To day , it is sugge ste d by this thesis that age and fam iliarity have erase d this effe c t but it is no table that metic ulo us work on building basic s is the only area of schoo l design in which there is a gen e ral conse nsus of po sit ive im pac t (PWC, 2005 ) . The activ it ie s in Hert fo rdshire fo llo we d by the rese arch of two of those inv o lv e d in Oxfo rdshire and Buckingham shire , Dav id and Mary Medd, allow e d Plo w de n (19 67 ) to refe r to a wealt h of co llabo rat ive educat io nal and archit e c t ural researc h which had take n place afte r the end of the Seco nd Wo rld War and which result e d in a pedago gic appro ac h inspire d by Piaget (19 75 ) and Dewe y (19 30 ) . This thesis finds a dire c t co nt rast with the situat io n to day in which rese arc h has no t co nt ribut e d prio r to the subst ant ial inv e st me nt in new schoo ls. The pedago gy em bo die d in the Plow de n (196 7) recomm e ndat io ns com prise d thre e theo re t ic ally sim ple metho ds which had alre ady been applie d in many rural scho o ls where lo w schoo l num be rs and the inabilit y to creat e co nv e nt io nally - size d classe s made it a matt e r of n ece ssit y (Fre em an, 196 9 ) . These metho ds were know n as team teaching, fam ily gro uping and the inte grat e d day (Bro gde n, 200 7) , which effe c t ive ly suppo rte d sm all gro up wo rk and coo pe rat ive teaching in what was inte nde d to be a very fluid scho o l organisat io n and flex ible time t able , rathe r than an indiv idual teache r operat ing with a gro up of thirty childre n. Plow de n (196 7) also echoed Piage t (19 75 ) , Dewey (193 0 ) and Vygo t sky (197 8) in respe c t to its call fo r mult i- se nso ry appro ac h to learning (Woo d, 199 8 ) and there fo re , as Gillard (198 7 ) no te s, include d an incre ase d recognit io n of the im po rt ance of the phy sic al env iro nm e nt . The rese arc h 6 0 which fo llo we d the War, which Saint (20 07 ) in part ic ular attribut es to the Medds, inv e st igat e d the pract ic e of these metho ds and fo cuse d on establishing a phy sic al env iro nme nt to suit . The suppo rt ing schoo l design became kno w n as open plan which Dav id Medd ultim ate ly dist anc e d him se lf from . As a r esult of these fact o rs, Plo w de n (19 67 ) felt able to highlight and reco gnise in po lic y the indiv idual needs of children, a po int which is clearly reit e rate d in to day?s obje c t iv e s: Indiv idual diffe re nc e s betwe e n childre n of the sam e age are so great that any class, ho wev e r homo ge neo us it seem s, must alway s be treate d as a bo dy of childre n needing indiv idual and diffe re nt atte nt io n (p.2 5 ) . 2.1.3.2 Design, use & well-being At this po int in the evo lut ion of schoo l design it appe ars that , with a clearly artic ulat e d pedago gy , an open plan design, and a sho rt age of mo ney , archit ec t s were no t as comm it t e d to the oute r im age of the schoo l. Howev e r, it must be rem em be red that the visual im pact of the scho o l is being judge d fift y years on and such retro spe ct ive scrut iny must be influe nc e d by age and fam iliarity . Figure 2-8 Eveline Lowe School (1964-66) and proposed refurbishment. Architect: David and Mary Medd (original) and HKR Architects (refurbishment). Photograph. Source: http://www.london- se1.co.uk/news/view/3423 O n balanc e po st - War schoo l archite c t ure was a go o d exam ple of an inward facing design philo so phy which was clearly exerc ise d in the pro gressiv e wo rk in Hert fo rdshire (Saint , 1987 ) . It co uld be argue d that fo r archit e c t s who were co nfident abo ut the educat ive and child - c e nt re d value of their buildings, the outside becam e a lesse r prio rit y . 6 1 Ano t he r co nt r ibuto ry factor ident ifie d by Saint (198 7) was the rest ric t io n on priv at e pract ic e in schoo l building fo llow ing the War and it is feasible that this play e d a part in an overriding focus on the funct io nalit y of the buildings ; in this way , arguably, schoo l buildings were no t seen as adv e rt ise me nt s. The pro pose d refurbishm e nt of the Medds? Ev eline Lo we Schoo l sho w n in Figure 2 - 8 illust rat e s a co nt rast with the outward - fac ing intent io ns of to day . Once such rest rict io ns were lift e d ho we ve r, there was a no tic e able react io n from the archit e c t ural com m unity . The best example of this was the seco ndary scho o l at Hunst anto n, illust rat e d in Figure 2 - 9 , designe d by Aliso n and Pete r Sm it hso n, which was arguably an unapo lo ge t ic demo nst rat io n of an aest he t ic . The sty le becam e know n as brutalism and applied the stark use of glass, metal and expo se d, alm ost unfinishe d, building elem e nt s which Rey ne r Banham (196 6 ) no te s was ofte n crit ic ise d fo r igno ring childre n and pleasing only archite c t s. Burke & Gro sv e no r (200 8) argue the schoo l had minim al influe nc e on subse que nt seco ndary schoo l buildings. Figure 2-9 Hunstanton School. Architect: Alison and Peter Smithson. Photograph: John Maltby. Source: RIBA Library Photographs Collection Sim ilarly Hagge rsto n School in Hackney , designe d by Ern ? Goldfinge r and bui lt in the early 196 0 s, was also stark in its charac te r and use of new mate rials. The schoo l is illust rat e d in Figure 2 - 10 . This is atte ste d to by Alle n (200 9) who claim e d ?innume rable cum ulat iv e changes and ad - ho c ad di t io ns have dilut e d the spart an clarity of the original design.? These ?change s and ad ho c 6 2 addit io ns? appe ar to be rued but it is arguable that , while the aest het ic may have suffe re d, they were ev ide nc e of hum anisat io n and use of the building which co nt rast e d with the design inte nt io n. Figure 2-10 Haggerston School 1964-65. Architect: Ern? Goldfinger. Photograph: Kit Reynolds. Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/kitreno/257500056/ T he co nce pt of open plan as it was im plem e nte d is sim ple : ?An open plan scho o l is esse nt ially what the wo rds im ply ? a gro up of large open areas which hav e few, if any , walls .. (Inst it ut e fo r Dev e lo pme nt of Educat io nal Activ it ie s (ID EA), 1970 , p.2 ). ? In co nt rast , Finme re Scho o l designe d by the Medds was charact e rise d, no t by its lack of walls, but by its noo ks and crannie s,? illust rat e d in Figure 2 - 11 overle af. This sim ple diffe re nc e was crit ic ally linke d to perce pt io ns of the child?s nature and the inv est igat ive learning. Right ly , Medd (199 8) maintaine d that the design was no t open plan in the sense that such schoo ls cam e to be know n, arguing that Finm e re was specific ally an inve st igat io n into the operat io n of sm all rural schoo ls . 6 3 Figure 2-11 Plan view of Finmere School (1959) indicating the intricacy of design. Architect: David and Mary Medd. Photograph. Source: http://www.bodders.org/finmere Ho w ev e r, the applic at io n of the Medds? rese arc h was wide ne d exte nsiv e ly and the Gov ernm e nt ?s Building Deve lo pm e nt Group, came to co nside r open plan ?gene rally ? the right way to wo rk in prim ary schoo ls, claim ing that the ?com binat io n of small num be rs, a wide range and a div e rsit y of inte re st s and abilit ie s, pro duc e s a mo re subt le relat io nship betw ee n teache rs and childre n than occurs in mo st large schoo ls, and enco urage s the s haring of skills, expe rie nce s, facilit ie s and space (Bro gde n, 200 7) .? The refe re nc e to sharing refle c t s the perce iv e d im po rt anc e of so cial inte rac t io n and com m unity in childre n?s learning; it was believ e d that open env iro nm e nt s fo st e r the natural sharing of facilit ie s and space . Inte re st ingly , in his crit ic ism of the classroom system , refe re nc ing its milit arist ic charac te r, Robso n (187 7 ) had originally pro po se d open env iro nm ent s indic at ing a si gnific ant ly diffe re nt cult ural appro ac h from that actually ado pte d by the Bo ard schoo ls. Base d on this prem ise , Plow de n pro po se d a pedago gy and a design and within a decade 10% of prim ary schoo ls were open plan (Bro gde n, 2007 ) and despit e evide nce befo re and afte r of mo re tradit io nal archit e ct ure , Saint (19 87 ) indic ate s a clear sense that archite c t s , in part ic ular those asso c iat e d with Hert fo rdshire , were start ing to push the bo undarie s of schoo l design and child - c e nt re d scho o l . 6 4 2.1.3.2.1 Articulation of space T he prev io us sect io n ident ifie d the discre panc y betw ee n the archit e ct ural inte nt io ns of the Medds? designs and those which becam e asso c iate d with the open plan era. It can be argue d that while both co uld feasibly suppo rt new teaching approac he s, their trea tm e nt of childre n?s learning behav io ur was diffe re nt . Medd reco gnise d the pote nt ial of tradit io nal schoo l archit e c t ure to dete rm ine behav io ur and the nature of so cial inte ract io n and used the building design to dire c t childre n towards a varie t y of so cial p o ssibilit ies with a num be r of po te nt ial so cial and learning outco me s. This thesis sugge st s that o pen plan, beyo nd the prov isio n of open space , saw archit e c t ure relie ve d of this respo nsibility and the ro le dire c te d to wards eithe r the teache rs or the furnit u re . The well - be ing mo de l explic it ly describe s social inte rac t io n and also expressio n and the motiv at io n of Plo w de n (196 7 ) was that this wo uld be large ly self- de rive d. Open scho o ls as Medd saw them must be suppo rt iv e a nd facilit ate the decision - m ak ing of the child by offe ring variet y as a way of stim ulat ing tho ught s and moo d. Marc (197 7 ) wo uld suppo rt this psy cho lo gic al obje ct iv e . He talks of the signific anc e of a do or and of its me ssage s: ?t o go thro ugh a doo r is to pass from one place to ano t he r, and there fo re from one stat e of mind to a not he r (p.3 8 ) .? Altho ugh Finm e re co nt aine d no do o rs in its original fo rm, apart from the optio n of sliding do o rs , the design is co nsiste nt with Marc?s interpre t at io n of the psy cho lo gic al im pact of specific space s co m pare d with one wide open space . Inte re st ingly, in the classroo m versus no classroom debat e , Hert zbe rge r (2008 ) is an adv oc at e of maint aining the classro om in orde r to prov ide a hom e base fo r the child but sim ult ane o usly to pro v ide adv e nt ure as childre n vent ure out. Sim ply , by hav ing two ro om s the oppo rt unit y fo r adv e nt ure is arguably do uble d. Hert zbe rge r (20 08 ) is also crit ic al of the rect angle , the staple shape of Educat io n, and its lim it at io ns. He pro po ses artic ulat e d classroom s which naturally pro duc e mult iple cent re s and adv o c at e s the use of L - shape d roo ms in orde r to pro v ide varie ty of so cial learning po ssibilit ie s. His asse ssme nt is derive d fro m Dyck who pro po ses that , ?the env iro nm e nt al qualit ie s of classroom s ? high/ lo w , open/ c lo se d, big/ lit t le , vert ic al/ ho rizo nt al? do inde e d affe ct the learning pro ce ss in yo ung ch ildre n (199 4 , p.4 3) .? Dyck (199 4 ) , in his discussio n of shape also allude s to scale as a fact o r and ano t he r im po rt ant co nside rat io n of learning space . The im pact of scale on co gnit io n and dev e lo pment has been wide ly studie d, but as Bell (200 6 ) claim s there is an unce rt ainty of im pac t . Co nt em plat ing a child?s disco ve ry of a large open rect angular space , as was the case wi th open plan wo uld, base d on the 6 5 work of in Kytt ? (20 06 ) , sugge st lim it at io ns and child - unfrie ndline ss rathe r than a co nt ribut io n to well- be ing. 2.1.3.2.2 Furniture It was prev io usly sugge ste d that open plan archite c t ure in it s prev ailing fo rm abso lve d archit e c t ural respo nsibilit y fo r pro v iding a childre n - cent re d env iro nm e nt . The pedago gy was clear but the quest io n is whet her furnit ure was able or allow e d to pro v ide the children with new learning and so cial po ssibilit ie s. The f urnit ure of this perio d co nt inue s to be seen in today ?s schoo ls which are in fact suffuse d with vario us legac ies of po st - W ar designe rs who challe nge d the tradit io nal woo de n scho o l chair by using new manufac t uring metho ds and mate rials (Saint , 1987 ) . Bo nd, Burns, Co tt am , Coy ne , Ho rne , Ho wland, Leadbe ate r, Shea, & Winhall (20 02 ) describe the varie ty of chairs one might expe c t to find in a schoo l. There are Ro bin Day chairs, scie nc e sto o ls, offic e swiv el chairs, plyw oo d chairs, plast ic mo ulde d chairs, po ly pro py le ne chairs with metal legs, cushio ne d chairs, benche s, lo unge chairs, rece pt io n chairs and library chairs. Som e chairs hav e rem aine d the sam e for 50 years (p.1 8 ) . The scho o l chair is an example of relat iv it y in how scho o l design is perce iv e d. Hist o ric ally chairs hav e carrie d a stat us abov e stoo ls and benche s (Cranz, 200 0) and best ow ing each schoo l child with a chair can be regarded as reflec t io n of the value asso c iat e d with the child?s educat io n; in this co nt e xt a chair can be viewe d as child - c e nt re d dev e lo pme nt , relat ive to Victo rian benches. Raising aspirat io ns wo uld cert ainly apply to the intro duc t io n of schoo l chairs, in addit io n to the flex ibilit y they prov ide , an indic at io n of the sym bo lic mov e to reco gnise the indiv idual child. The financ ial co nst raints of the po st - W ar era are clearly refle c t e d in the deve lo pm e nt of furnit ure which is now av ailable in scho o ls. Ro bin Day ?s 196 3 inje c t io n mo ulde d po ly pro py le ne chair evo lve d into a lo w co st scho o l mo de l calle d the e- se rie s which was highly inno vat iv e at the tim e but no w, as one supplie r describe s, ? show s extre me stre ngt h and durabilit y , making it ubiquit o us in educat io nal establishm ent s (Che llgro ve , 200 9 ) .? There fo re , altho ugh it was once rev o lut io nary , its ongo ing affo rdability has meant that it has prese nte d a majo r obst ac le fo r any new design to perm eat e the schoo l marke t since . While the use of plast ic s is dire c t ly co nt radic to ry to the philo so phie s of Steine r and Mo nt e sso ri, who Knight (20 09 ) ident ifie s as strict advo c ate s of natural mate rials, to get any n otic eable change in the furnit ure of mainst re am schoo ls designe rs had to 6 6 find lo w co st optio ns and plast ic s techno lo gie s were excit ing and appro priate at this time . Despit e the guiding eco nom ic situat io n, there is evide nc e that it was no t only archite c t s w ho were arguably start ing their design pro ce ss by co nside ring mate rials and metho ds rathe r than the needs of the user. (Ste ine r and Mo nte sso ri are discusse d furt he r in Chapte r 4). Once again it was in Hert fordshire , and late r in the pursuit s of those inv o lv e d, where a mo re co nce rt e d, ho list ic appro ach to archit e ct ure and furniture was ado pte d; Saint (198 7 ) ident ifie s that Medd and Jo hnso n - Marshall challe nge d the rigidit y and unco o pe rat iv e nature of schoo l furnit ure by designing freest anding table s and chairs with the aim of suppo rt ing gro up wo rk in a way that exist ing oak or cast iro n schoo l furnit ure inhibit e d (Burke & Grosve no r, 200 8 ) . Figure 2-12 illust rat e s child - size d chairs designe d by Medd, evide nt ly capable of being mov e d aro und by prim ary age childre n. Figure 2-12 Child-sized chairs 1946. Photograph. Source: Institute of Education By the 1960 s Dav id Medd was wo rking with PEL (P ract ic al Equipme nt Ltd), a manufac t ure r in tubular stee l and plast ic s, to promo te the FORM E range and its im pac t was highly signific ant bo th in the UK and Euro pe (Saint , 1987 ) . Saint indic at e s that the range , info rme d by newly av ailable 6 7 anthro pom et ric data, becam e know n fo r its mo bile sto rage unit s, rect angular or trape zo idal table s and child - size d chairs. These su ppo rte d sm alle r gro up wo rk and flex ible gro upings adv o c at e d by open plan and are still obse rv ably highly ev ide nt to day . There fo re , while open plan archit e ct ure as it was applie d was co nside re d a failure (Bro gde n, 200 7 ) , the furnit ure which was co ncurre nt ly designe d enable d the shift to gro up wo rk ing in prim ary schoo ls. This was in dire c t co nt rast to the rowe d seat ing of the Bo ard scho o ls and the situat io n fo und in many seco ndary schoo ls to day (Greany , 2005 ) . Figure 2 - 13 illust rat e s a typic al open plan layo ut and the relat io nship betw ee n archit e c t ure and furnit ure in St Paul?s Prim ary Schoo l in Lo ndo n. The im po rt anc e place d upo n the furnit ure to pro v ide the so cial and learning po ssibilit ie s is evide nt , altho ugh despite the adapt io n of furnit ure to the needs of gro up wo rk, it appe ars that schoo ls went from a one dime nsio nal appro ac h to childre n?s learning to a slight ly diffe re nt one dim e nsional appro ac h. Figure 2-13 Open plan school. Photograph. Source: Waterhouse (1972) 6 8 2.1.3.2.3 Use of open plan by the school community In spit e of the appare nt alignm e nt of pedago gy and design, the open plan expe rim e nt , Bro gde n (200 7) co nt e nds, was wide ly co nside re d to have faile d and, as the last majo r schoo l building pro gramm e, the im pac t on the cur re nt pro gramm e canno t be unde rst ate d. Im port ant ly open plan is no w struggling against this hist o ric al failure to reasse rt itse lf, as will be discusse d late r in this chapt e r. Com prom ise s were made which resulte d arguably in bland open env iro nm e nts and the e xpe rie nce of open plan env iro nm e nts turne d out to be quit e co nt radict o ry to the Plo w de n Repo rt (196 7 ) . Rev ie w ing ho w these scho o ls were used and ultim ate ly rejec t e d raise s som e rele v ant issue s relat ing to the ov erlay in g of tradit io nal schoo l cult ure and well- being. Face d with a wide open learning space it is inte re st ing to no te that it was not lo ng befo re teache rs began to erect tem po rary barrie rs to com partm e nt alise the space; in fact Ev ans (197 9 , p.3 0) claim s ?... the very barrie rs which the educat io nal archit e c t s claim e d were disso lv ing were in fact reinfo rce d and in so me case s inst igate d in respo nse to the new fo rm s.? In effe c t they were recre at ing the classroom and establishing tradit io nal teaching pract ice which was maint aine d and even inte nsifie d in orde r to establish organisat io n in the schoo l. Figure 2 - 10 illustrat e s the barrie rs which began to appe ar but, even afte r these change s, the sty le of teaching arguably becam e mo re presc ript ive (Benne t t & Hyland, 197 9) . As a result, teache rs were heav ily crit ic ise d fo r resist ing change (Bro gde n, 2007 ) . To start with King (19 78 ) belie ve d that teache rs co nside re d child - ce nt re d educat io n to be what they already did and there fo re did no t assoc iat e it with any nece ssary change . Co nne ct e d with this Benne tt & Hyland (19 79 ) also relat e d the open plan failure to the teache rs? unwillingne ss to fo re go their territo ry , which was argued to be a stat us sym bo l fo r a qualifie d teache r. Furt he rm o re there is no do ubt th at on to p of the usual abilit y to engage and stim ulat e childre n and Galt o n, Simo n & Cro ll (198 0) note that open plan schoo ls require d organisat io nal and co - o pe rat iv e skills very diffe re nt fro m tho se neede d in a standard classroom . Galto n et al. (19 80 ) , by study ing open plan teaching com pare d with classroom teaching, no te d that teachers in open plan inte ract e d much less with childre n, asking fewe r quest io ns and making fewe r stat e me nt s, and spending more tim e marking. This is in a sense co nsist e nt with inde pe nde nt learning dire c t e d by the child but it wo uld seem that the teache rs who were willing and able to thrive in this env iro nm e nt were a minorit y . Acco rding to Galt o n & Simo n (198 0 , p.9 5 ) , ?o nly 5 per cent of the succe ssful teache rs operat e d in open - plan co m pare d with 38 per cent of unsuc c essful ones.? 6 9 In defe nc e of the teache rs, gene rally the env iro nme nts lacke d the po ssibili t ies originally offe re d by Medd to the po int that even withdrawal spaces, as Galt o n et al. (19 80 ) describe them , were only typic ally available through the archit ec t ure if walls had been kno ck e d do wn in an exist ing building. In addit io n it was argue d that open plan was no t well im plem e nte d; in fact Bro gde n calle d it an im po sit io n (2007 ) . While Medd spent many years wo rking with teache rs prio r to archit e c t ural change s (Woo lne r et al., 2005 ) , when open plan was inst igat e d Bro gde n ( 20 07 ) no te s the om issio n of teache r training. In sum m ary he calls the who le expe rim e nt inno vat io n witho ut change result ing in the ?silent majo rity ?, th e teache rs, co nt inuing to teach tradit ionally in spit e of the change s to the phy sic al env iro nme nt . Teache rs also blame d cert ain aspe c t s of the archit e ct ure fo r their respo nse . The buildings ofte n faile d to meet teache rs? expe c t at io ns of aco ust ic and tem pe rat ure inte grity but it wo uld appe ar that whate ve r mate rials and technique s were used, the large vo id led to com plaint s of dist rac t io n and diffic ult ie s of maint aining co nce nt rat io n and co nt ro l (Benne t t , 1980 ) . Even today there are claim s that newly appo inted open plan schoo ls are aco ust ic ally inade quat e (BBC, 200 9) . Furt he rmo re , it is argue d that with po or aco ust ic s com e s lowe r attainm e nt , partic ularly fo r childre n with hearing difficult ie s (NDCS, 2009 ) . This in turn there fo re beco me s an issue of inclusio n and so it is very rele v ant when th e Natio nal Deaf Childre n?s Socie ty (NDCS, 2009 ) claim s that only one in fiv e lo cal autho rit ie s co uld co nfirm today that the G ov e rnm e nt? s standards on aco ust ics had be en met. 2.1.3.3 Review Com me nt ato rs were unified in their crit ic ism of open plan altho ugh many still belie v e that it was the right co nce pt just im ple me nt e d badly . There is no do ubt , ho wev e r, that it was em phat ic ally reje c te d. It is disput e d whet he r open plan faile d because of the educat io nal visio n itse lf or because of the execut io n of this visio n, quest io ning whet he r teache rs were at fault fo r not em brac ing the change or whet he r the change was at fault fo r no t em brac ing the teache rs. Ho we ve r, the inte rnat io nal failure of open plan describe d by Mart inho & Freire da Silv a (200 8) is highly signific ant . Beyo nd the child - c e nt re d aspirat io ns, there was a certain failure to appre c iat e that the Victo rian require me nt fo r co nt ro l and discipline had no t go ne away . The issues of co nce ntrat io n and dist rac t io n were dete rm ining fact o rs and the erect io n of make shift classro om s, while arguably territo ry - re lat e d respo nse s, co uld mo st pro bably be inte rpre te d as co nt ro lling dev ic e s. On balanc e 7 0 there were many facto rs including mo ney - sav ing design and po o r im ple me nt at ion but also the detac hme nt of teache rs from childre n, this discussio n allude s , was a diffic ult and perhaps unnat ural cult ural adjustme nt . The expe rie nc e signific ant ly highlight s the abilit y and willingne ss of teache rs to defy new pract ic e and to neut ralise the impac t of a majo r change to the design of the schoo l env iro nm e nt . This indic at e s the lim it s of archite c t ural dete rm inism in scho o ls. Mean w hile , the relat io nship betw ee n archite c t ure and furnit ure change d and furnit ure slow ly mov e d fo rw ards while archit e c t ure to ok a step backwards. Gro up wo rking and suppo rt ing table s and chairs (illust rate d earlie r in Figure 2 - 13 ) were probably the mo st sign ific ant design dev e lo pme nt s of this period which have been sust aine d in an educat io nal sense . Ultimat e ly ho wev e r it wo uld seem that mo tiv at io ns fo r bo th were stro ngly mate rials and eco nom ic s - base d. 2.1.4 A perspective on today?s new schools It has been sugge st e d that mov eme nt s in schoo l design tend to be inte rnat io nal pheno me na and to day there is a great degre e of com mo nality of purpo se in curre nt think ing regarding scho o l design acro ss co unt rie s (Hack e r, 2001 ) . Repre se nt ing the Or ganisat io n fo r Eco nom ic Co - o pe rat io n and Dev e lo pme nt (OECD) , Hacke r (20 01 ) reco gnise s the wide spre ad desire to dev e lo p the indiv idual within an unce rtain env iro nme nt relat ing to the direc t io n of Educat io n. Ho we ve r, he also no te s the bro ade r co nce rns of the env iro nm e nt and maint ains that the schoo l sho uld be ?a too l fo r learning and no t a mo num e nt to aest he t ic s (20 01 , p.v ii) .? Despit e common gro und there is no prefe rre d design mo d e l within or acro ss co unt ries; a feat ure which has prev iously charac t e rise d pro gramm e s , altho ugh one which is perhaps mo st ev ide nt retro spe c t ive ly . Addit io nally it appe ars that the curre nt schoo l pro gramm e is catching up with prev io us design ideas which faile d to becom e establishe d invo lv ing princ iple s of open plan and open air scho o ls. Many pro po sals include open or sem i - o pe n plan designs (Do rre ll, 2005 ) unde rlining a co nce rt e d react io n against the classroo m: ? the classroom is at the heart of the sense of dism ay felt by many pupils and teache rs: an obst ac le to be overco me by the mo tiv ate d, a so urce of defe at fo r tho se who are already struggling (Bo nd et al., 200 2 , p.8 ) . ? The descript io ns of th e activ itie s describe d in mo re open schoo ls and the metho ds used in suppo rt are, arguably , highly reflec t iv e of Plow de n (196 7) : at a prim ary lev e l, it can be co nt e ste d that the main diffe re nc e betw e e n Plow de n?s (19 67 ) recomm e ndat io ns and perso nalise d learning is that hand - he ld techno lo gy (Heppe ll et al., 2004 ; Page , 2008 ) is seen as the main facilitat or and not archit e c t ure . Ho we ve r, the cent ral issue of open plan is unreso lv e d in which open, undiffe re nt iate d space is pote nt ially co ntradic t o ry to 7 1 ambit io ns of indiv idualisat io n and unde rm ining of the need to manage and keep co nt ro l of a large num be r of childre n. A sim ilar exam ple of renewal relat e to the archite c t ural relat io nsh ip of the school with the outdoo r env iro nme nt . The design at Larme nie r and Sacre d Heart Prim ary Scho o l, it is claim e d, ?blurs the dist inct io n betwee n indo o rs and outdoo rs (Learning by Design, 200 7 , p.3 1 ) which, quo t ing P ate l (2007 , p.33 ) ?m ee t s the child?s need to mov e aro und free ly and stim ulat e s their learning.? Ho we ve r, it is dete c t able in the em erging designs (D fES, 200 3 a) that this fo cus has typic a lly been to deve lo p dist inc t space s in the outdoors and it is quest io nable how much play is co nside re d within the mo re fo rm al learning env iro nme nt s inside the schoo l. As such it wo uld seem im po rt ant to unde rstand ho w childre n view their outdo o r schoo l spac e s and whet he r keeping them free from fo rm al learning activ it ie s is impo rt ant from a territo rial po int of view . The rele v anc e of the tradit io nal dem arc at io n betw e e n social space s and learning space s is co nside re d in Chapt e r 6. 2.1.4.1 New intentions: Sustainability T he re are som e mo tiv at io ns base d upo n well - be ing which are new. The term sust ainabilit y in design acco unt s fo r to day ?s perce iv e d env iro nme nt al thre at and has no t prev io usly explic it ly appe are d as an objec t iv e in schoo l building pro gram me s. Learning by De sign (2007 , p.6 ) , an archit e c t ural educat io n advo c acy gro up, define s sust ainabilit y in a div e rse way , citing the co nse rv at io n of energy and reso urc e , minim isat io n of wast e, prot e ct io n and enhanc e me nt of nature , respe c t thro ugh invo lve me nt and the creat io n of buildings of lo ng term value . There is an im plic it mo tiv at io n to im pro ve childre n?s well- be ing in the lo ng term by pro t e ct ing the natural wo rld in which they liv e . Lochhe ad, Bulme r, Tidcom be , Batt aglia, Gree n, & Da v idso n (200 7 ) sugge st that childre n are highly co nsc io us of the env iro nme nt al debat e and, fo r them , it is im po rt ant fo r their scho o l buildings to meet the env iro nme nt al challe nge s. Witho ut unde rst at ing its im po rt anc e this thesis sugge st s that sustainabilit y in carbo n term s must also be co nside re d a fundam e nt al basic of design. I n addit io n it has been no te d prev io usly that the struct ural aspec t s of buildings hav e , in hindsight dist rac t e d from , and even been disguise d as, oth e r mo re affe ct ive go als. It is po ssible that env iro nm e nt al sust ainability has offe re d to day ?s archit e c ts a means of adding value in a mo re dire c t and tangible way but again witho ut challe nging the hum an and learning aspe c ts of design (Rudd, 200 8 b) and archite ct s? descript io ns can be inte rpre t e d as preoc c upat io n with such i ssue s (Kusze ll, Lloy d Jo nes & Stew art , 200 8) . 7 2 While sust ainability em phasise s mate rials, co nst ruct ion metho ds and the schoo l?s day - to - day energy use, perspe c t iv e s on sust ainabilit y hav e incre asingly begun to accomm o dat e the scho o l?s lo ng term value , i.e. its lo nge v ity , in which mo re effe ct iv e affective design is vital. The effo rt to build schoo ls to last is the prem ise of the curre nt pro gramme which seeks scho o ls of lo nge v it y; the Scot t ish expe rie nc e fo llo w s a sim ilar line in which ? Sust ainable buildings sho uld be designe d fo r a lo ng life , serv ing their comm unit ie s fo r many years (Sco t t ish Execut iv e , 2004 , p.5) .? The lengt h of life of a schoo l is no t just a quest io n of struc t ural qualit y; ?Sust ainabilit y needs to start at the beginning: the educat io nal visio n? and ?Design sho uld start with an asse ssm e nt of curre nt educat io nal needs and be flex ible eno ugh to accomm o dat e future ch ange s in educat io nal pract ic e (DfES, 2006 b, p.7) .? In effe ct this place s an addit io nal pressure on designe rs, as Chapt e r 1 describe d, to seco nd guess the future state of Educat io n in thirty years ? tim e . As an answ er the perce iv ed need fo r flex ibility in design refle c t s this unkno w n dire c t io n of Educat io n which, this the sis sugge st s rende rs the po tent ial of archit e ct ure , in part ic ular, great ly dim inishe d by an atte m pt to co ve r all po ssibilit ie s. This is exace rbate d by a paradigm dict at ing that scho o l design sho uld no t unduly influe nce the pedago gy (Heppe ll et al., 2004 ) abiding by Benne t t ?s assert io n that ? m o st teache rs belie ve that the design of a building sho uld no t dictat e organisat io n (19 80 , p.3 9 ) .? Relat e d to this, the Gov e rnm e nt appe ars no t to co nside r the educat io nal oppo rtunit y and env iro nm e nt al effe c t of building scho o ls which are replac e d mo re ofte n, akin to the large ly iso lat e d exam ple of Cott re ll?s cardbo ard schoo lro om at West bo ro ugh Prim ary Scho o l in West c liff, Essex (RIBA, 200 2) . It is arguable that the organisat io n of new schoo l building programm e s prefe rs a one - o ff, high - im pac t appro ac h rathe r than a co nt inuo us c ycle in which learning, expe rt ise and new ideas may be arguably gene rate d. It is feasible that mo re regular replac em ent wo uld be mo re accomm o dat ing of curre nt trends in Educat io n and libe rat e archit ec t s from attem pt ing to design fo r the unknow n and a very lo ng life span; thus pote ntially just ify ing a mo re aest he t ic appro ac h to design. At a mo re affe c t iv e leve l, Lo chhe ad et al. (20 07 ) bro ade n the sust ainabilit y debat e to ?inclusio n and part ic ipat io n; local well- be ing; and glo bal dim e nsio n (p.5 ) ,? which can be co nside re d in the sam e co nt e xt as the well - be ing mo de l. Expe rie nce from the curre nt pro gramm e indic at e s tenuo us claim s of co nt ribut io n to well- be ing thro ugh affe c t iv e des ign which, evide nt in Heppe ll et al. (200 4) , tend to be lim ite d to co nce rns of inspirat io n. Fo r exam ple , Rasm usse n?s (196 4 ) study of 7 3 dim e nsio ns in archite c t ure explains the origins and popularit y of the go lde n sect io n, or go lde n mean, tracing it back to Pythago ras and Fibo nac c i and highlight ing its influe nc e on the wo rk of Le Co rbusie r. It was Maco dy Lund (192 1 ) who fam o usly argue d that the greate st works of archit e c t ure were base d on this ratio yet it repre se nts a rathe r hack ney e d approac h to scho o l design, in which the ro m ant ic ism of Fibo nac c i, da Vinci and Le Co rbusie r is prefe rre d to any t hing pro ve n. Studio E Archit ec t s, fo r exam ple , refe r to the go lde n mean as ?a sym bo l fo r its yo ung com m unity ? the mathem at ic s of nature within the struc t ure of their bui lding (Kusze ll, Llo y d Jo ne s & Stew art , 2007 ) . ? There are othe r exam ple s in which archite c t s are arguably guilt y of overplay ing the psy cho lo gic al im pac t of their schoo l designs witho ut evide nc e . Red exte rio r brick wo rk is claime d to creat e ?a feeling of a safe , perm ane nt and secure env iro nm e nt (Learning by Design, 2007 , p.2 9 ) ,? in which the archite c t s hav e right ly or wro ngly cho se n a tradit io nal form and mate rial but then just ifie d its lack of innov at io n as som ething which childre n feel secure abo ut . Archit e c t s have also react ed against the ubiquito us right angle by designing a scho o l with ro und classroom s. The local autho rit y claim s Abergw y nfi Prim ary Schoo l is mo re inclusiv e : ?no - o ne is at the back of the class and no - o ne is at the fro nt . It's a ll - inc lusiv e (Nutt , 200 9 ) .? This design re pre se nt s the antit he sis of the Medds? philo so phy by pro v iding an enclose d, po ssibly diso rie nt at ingly undiffe re nt iat e d space . I t is pro po se d here that rathe r than perso nalising learning this type of design attem pts to homo ge nise childre n even mo re . Dev e lo pi ng the refe re nce to inclusio n, there also appears to be an inte rnat io nal misunde rst anding of well- be ing and its com po ne nt s. Fo r exam ple , So inine n Prim ary Schoo l in Helsink i refe rs to inclusio n, citing what wo uld appe ar to be very supe rfic ial co nside rat io ns when co nside ring its com ple x ity : ?The inclusive nature of the schoo l is expre sse d in the clo se relat io nship of the building to the surro unding park and in the mult iple entranc e s to the building, clearly define d by the flow ing line s of the exte rnal wall (Hack er, 200 1 , p.9 ).? As a result of the dece nt ralise d nature of the schoo l pro gramme s, the subse que nt designs are perhaps mo re varie d than prev io us pro gramm e s. While Abergwy nfi Prim ary Schoo l co nce nt rat e s on undiffe re nt iat e d space the exem plar design brie f describe s the pro v isio n of ?seat ing areas and quie t corne rs? to ?enco urage social interac t io n (DfES, 2003 b, p.4 ) . ? This indic ate s the mo tiv at io n fo r so cial space s and is co nsist e nt with the design obje c t ive s allude d to by the well - be ing mo de l. Beard (200 5 ) h owev e r comm e nt s on the gene rally inade quat e prov isio n of so cial areas in the curre nt designs and, as prev io usly ment io ne d, these are highly s egre gat e d spaces. 7 4 Relev ant ly , c ent r al atria or co urty ards are co mmo n feat ure s , evide nt in Dulw ic h Woo d Schoo l and Kingsle y High Scho o l (Nicho las Hare Archite c t s LLP ), fo r exam ple . Walt e rs & Co he n (20 03 ) describe a so c ial hub, or the heart of the schoo l, where everyone can com e to get he r info rm ally co nsist e nt with t he DfES design brie f (200 3 b) which rem ark s on the educat io nal co nt ribut ion of such areas offe ring an ?info rm al curriculum . ? Chapt e r 5 will co nside r the im plic at io ns of presc ript io n and design elem e nt s which appe ar to be artific ially deriv e d. 2.1.4.2 Furniture as a means of control So far this the sis has maintaine d that schoo l archite c ture has been lim it e d in its appro ac h and unde rst anding of affe c t iv e design, prefe rring to co ncent rat e on basic struc t ural and funct io nal require me nt s of the building whilst co urt ing the design obje c t iv es of prev io us scho o l building pro gramm es. Howev e r, as archit e c ts struggle with the legac y o f the Vict o rian classro om , scho o l furnit ure sim ilarly appe ars to hav e diffic ult y in break ing the ho ld of the po ly pro pyle ne chair; wo rk ing as part of the Kit for Purpose team (Bo nd et al. 200 2 ), L. Ho wland (personal com m unic at io n, 28 June 2005 ) no te s how th e co st of a mass pro duce d scho o l chair estim ate d at ?7 (20 02 ) is highly pro hibit iv e to a scho o l?s abilit y to affo rd and just ify alte rnat iv e schoo l furnit ure . The chair is a go o d exam ple with which to asse ss curre nt motiv at io ns in furnit ure design. Evide nc e does no t reve al any am bit io us mo ve s away fro m the basic unit of the scho o l chair and table : ? Teac he rs gene rally buy what is on offe r in standardise d catalo gue s, ofte n to replac e wo rn - o ut equipm e nt rathe r than to pursue a strat e gy for learning (Bo nd et al., 200 2 , p.1 2 ) . ? Dean (200 8 ) also make s it clear that there is a fundam e nt al cult ural diffic ult y in prim ary scho ols mo v ing away fro m the paradigm that each child sho uld hav e their ow n chair and desk space : ?Many prim ary childre n spend a lo t of time on their feet and it is no t unusual in a prim ary classroo m to see alm ost everyo ne standing and the chairs very much in the way (p.1 96 ) .? T he fo c us of furnit ure design to day has tende d to co nce nt rate on seco ndary scho o ls with a seem ing acce pt anc e in prim ary of what alre ady exist s. Rev ie w ing a few exam ples of what is co nside re d by the Design Co unc il (Gre any , 2005 ) to be inno v at iv e furnit ure design in seco ndary educat io n is indic at iv e of the diffic ult y in making any fundam e nt al adv anc e s in design. Greany (200 5) describe s the 36 0 degree classroom experim ent carrie d out at St Margare t ?s Scho o l in Liv e rpoo l in which a chair/de sk unit was designe d . The syst em , sho w n in Figure 2 - 14 is mo v able and allo w s stude nt s to face diffe re nt dire c t io ns inte nde d to co unt e r the less dynam ic classro om in which rows of desks face the teache r who remains stat ic in fro nt of the sam e wall each lesso n. 7 5 Figure 2-14 The QPod. Designer: Stage Systems. Photograph. Source: Greany (2005) Figure 2-15 Orbital 2002. Designer: Azumi with keen. Photograph. Source: http://www.isisconcepts.co.uk/educational_solutions/tables/isis_orbital_workstation.html 7 6 As a crit ic ism it can be argue d that the furnit ure prov ide s only a mino r challe nge to co nv e nt io n, part ic ularly in respe ct to the stude nt s them se lv es which, in a child - c e nt re d scho ol, is arguably param o unt . The design is perhaps mo st libe rat ing fo r the teache r and reinfo rce s the hierarc hic al nature of classroo m activ ity by indic at ing who is in cont ro l. It also reinfo rc e s the ro le of teacher as a perfo rm er (D ean, 200 3) which wo uld seem to be at odds with a perso nalise d learning appro ac h in which, as Tapsco t t & William s (2008 ) ident ify , the teache r is no lo nge r co nsidere d to be the fo nt of all know le dge . Claim s that the stude nts can mo ve their QP o ds, as they are know n ( Figure 2 - 14 ) , to work in pairs or gro ups are co nt e nt io us give n the design and it is arg uable that the unit s will becom e stat ic in the sam e way in which their prede c e sso rs hav e been. Sim ilarly , Keen and Azum i?s orbit al wo rkst at io n (Figure 2 - 1 5 ) , a winne r of the Design Co unc il?s 2003 Furnit ure fo r the Future com pet it io n, is based alo ng a sim ilar ro tat ing princ iple . Despit e the pro file of their designe rs, b oth of these designs co uld be view e d as a retro grade step in which the seat has been rejo ine d to the desk, as per the Vict o rian Bo ard mo de l. Co nside ring this in the light of the schoo l?s so cialisat ion ro le , and needs of co nt rol, the design also include s a mechanism which preclude s the wo rk st at ion from being mov e d if it is being sat on. Ano t he r exam ple of design which is mo tiv at e d by behav io ural co nce rns is the Max chair , creat e d by Sedley Place , which preve nt s the pupil from ro ck ing backw ards: ?an im age fam iliar to ev ery pare nt and teache r - a child leaning back on a chair, balanc ing precario usly on the rear two legs.? This, it is claim e d, is the cause of 70% of childre n?s scho o l- re lat e d adm issi o ns to ho spit al (Ast hana, 200 8 , p.7 ) . Ho w valid these figure s are is not part ic ularly rele v ant ; it is perhaps mo re pert ine nt to co nside r the co nce rns of disrupt io n and misbe hav io ur unde rly ing these mo tiv at ions of healt h. Asthana (20 08 ) quo t e s Neal, the natio nal preside nt of the Asso c iat io n fo r Teache rs and Lect ure rs: 'The re was a case in Devo n where a class wasn't well behav e d, and when the teache r turne d aro und they were all swinging off the chairs. One girl fell off, suffe re d a lo ng - t e rm injury and her fam ily trie d to sue the lo cal autho rity .? Within this explanat io n, the girl?s healt h is arguably seco ndary to the negat iv e expe rie nce and pro t ec t io n of the teache r. Furt he rmo re , it is reve aling that the design so lut io n offe re d prev e nt s rathe r than allo w s some fo rm of safe rock ing, or mov em e nt at least . It is po ssible to argue that ro cking is a rebe llio us, co nfro nt at io nal act as Neal sugge st s. On the othe r hand there is an incre asing num be r who belie ve that fidge t ing is eithe r natural and an im po rt ant part of learning (P ine , Bird & Kirk , 200 7 ) or a pro duc t of the pedagogy (Ro binso n, 1994 ) ; in eithe r way th is thesis ident ifie s the decisio n to prev e nt rocking as one which do es no t put the child first and perpet uat e s learning env iro nme nt s which preclude mo vem e nt . 7 7 This is refle c te d in Bo nd et al. ?s (20 02 ) prim ary co nt e nt io n with the design of scho o l chairs, in which poo r erg o nom ic s is ident ifie d as the reaso n fo r rest le ssne ss : Much of the stude nt s? energy and co nce nt rat io n is dire c t e d into com pe nsat ing for ergo nom ic ally inappro priate furnit ure , making them rest le ss and there fo re dist urbing bo th their own and othe rs? co nce nt rat io n (p.21 ) . The Brit ish Co unc il fo r Schoo l Env iro nm e nt s (BCSE) agre e s, citing poo r ergo no m ic design of classroom chairs and desks as the reaso n why 50% of schoo l childre n repo rt back pain; In turn it is claim e d that this will hav e som e effe ct on ? atte ndance , co nce nt rat io n, h andw rit ing, abilit y to part ic ipat e in spo rt , relat ionships and well- be ing (BCSE , 2007 , p.7).? Howev e r, on the basis of the prece ding discussio n, this thesis co nt e st s this view is sim plist ic; rathe r ergo nom ics i s a dist rac t io n fro m the dynam ic and human elem e nt s of furnit ure use and fails there fo re to fundam e nt ally challe nge the co nce pt of the tradit io nal chair (See Chapt e r 5). Mo reov e r rese arc h such as Lint o n, Hellsing , Halm e, & Akerst edt (19 94 ) can be argue d to pro mo te the stat ic classroom , prio rit ising sight and hearing over othe r sense s. Conc e rns abo ut phy sic al inact iv ity in childre n and grow ing leve ls of obesity , Ziv iani, Wadle y, Ward, Macdo nald, Jenk ins & Ro dge r (20 08 ) no te , are expre sse d by po lit ic ians, healt h eco nom ist s and tho se invo lve d with the healt h and well - be ing of childre n . In fact the Design Co unc il (20 05 , p.20 ) maint ains that o n average a child will sit fo r 15,000 hours during their scho o l caree r using the sam e furnit ure used by 11 to 18 year olds . Sure ly there fo re the mo st relev ant quest io n is sho uld yo ung peo ple be made to sit fo r this perio d of tim e and ho w can the co nce pt of the tradit io nal chair be challe nge d to suppo rt a cult ural change in educat io n? Such quest io ns suppo rt the view that design is ofte n carrie d out with only a narrow appre c iat io n of Educat io n and childre n. 2.1.4.3 Influence of the Economy D ude k (20 00 ) crit ic ise d the Vict o rian Bo ard Schoo ls fo r pro duc ing fo dde r fo r manufac t uring. Meanw hile , earlie r in this thesis it was sugge st e d that to day?s fo cus on the indiv idual and their creat iv it y is equally eco nom ic ally deriv e d ; t he inte nt to pro v ide ?fo dde r ? fo r the glo bal eco nomy is expo se d . Co nspic uo usly, fro m the orde re d factor y lines of the Bo ard schoo ls thro ugh to open plan, and to day 's acade m ies, schoo ls hav e also tende d to take their fo rm from the wo rk place . In the late st ro und of schoo l building, no t least in the acade m ie s, it can be maintaine d that a who lly co rpo rat e im age is co nv ey e d; the signage and labe lling of space s as syndicat e ro om s or break out areas, ?h o t - de sk ing, ho te lling and right space (Clarke , 200 9 , p.2 2) ? repre se nt s the 7 8 influe nc e not only of offic e design but addit io nally of pract ic e . It wo uld appe ar that crit ic ism s lev e lle d at Educat io n of a scho o l cult ure which is ? ov e rly ratio nalist ic , scie nt ist ic , co rpo rat ist , manage rial, and narrow ly result s - base d (van Mane n, 200 5 , p.2 19 ) ?, are being refle c t e d in the designe d env iro nm e nt . More relaxe d design co nce pt s draw n from high pro file exam ple s like the Go o gle offic e s in Seatt le , offe r furt he r evide nc e that archit e c t s are loo king to co rpo rat e sty le s and influe nc e s. I nflue nt ial bo die s like the BCSE (2007 ) who have highlight e d the advanc e me nt of offic e env iro nm e nt s to illust rat e the paucit y of schoo l design must in part hav e co nt ribut e d . In addit io n many pract ice s invo lv e d in schoo l design are rev e rt ing to expe rie nc e gaine d in the offic e secto r and no t in Educat io n. Wh ile there is an argume nt, uphe ld in princ iple by the well - be ing mo de l, that a child's lo ng term well- be ing is stro ngly co nne c t e d to how prepare d they are to funct io n within so cie t y and the eco nom y and the phy sic al fo rm of scho o ls sho uld prom ot e this where it can, t here is a sugge st io n that in this way design may be co nt ribut ing to a theft of cho ic e and aspe cts o f childho o d. It is feasible also that this indicat e s a sublim inal preo cc upat io n with co ndit io ning in scho o l design and narro w s the po ssibilit ies for the child late r in life . The idea that design might co ntribut e to a theft of cho ic e is part ic ularly reso nant as comm e ntat ors like Craft (20 05 ) quest io n Educat io nal po licy base d on the unce rt ain stabilit y of the glo bal eco nomy and its suspe c t env iro nme nt al co nt ribut io n. 2.1.4.4 Review T he histo ric al legac y of scho o l design prov ide s a useful co nte x t fo r appraising what is curre nt ly happe ning in BSF and PCP and gene rally the curre nt pro gramme s appe ar to be rev isit ing prev io us design ideas. T he atte nt io n paid to archit e c t ure co nt inue s to take prece de nce . This is unde rst andable co nside ring that the building co nst it ut e s the great e st capit al co st , ro ughly betwee n 80% and 90% depe nding on definit io n s (DfES, 200 3 b ; Vansc re e c h & Heard, 200 8 ) yet it is uncert ain whet he r archit e c t ure repre se nt s 80%- 9 0% of co nt ribut io n to a child?s well- be ing. Addit io nally it can be co nt est e d that the innov at io n which is appare nt in these effo rt s is ofte n lim ite d to an explo rat io n of building techno lo gy , relat e d in part ic ular to the env iro nme nt . Asso c iate d with this thesis no tes that scho o l furnit ure co nt inue s to be an afte rt ho ught , com ply ing with the co nvent io n highlight e d by Bo nd et al. (20 02 ) . Where furnit ure has been co nside re d it is sugge st iv e of teache r - ce nt re d, pr esc ript iv e mo tiv e s and even retro grade steps in design. The new archit e c t ure may be mo re open or visually diffe re nt 7 9 fro m what one might expec t fro m a scho o l but the furnit ure appe ars to sust ain a co nt ro lling ro le (See Figure 2 - 16 ) . Even ergo nom ic s can be argue d to be a way in which childre n are made to sit fo r lo nge r than their bo dy wo uld naturally cho o se . Figure 2-16 St Franc is of Assisi Prim ary Schoo l 200 3 . Archit e c t: Studio E. Phot o graph. So urc e : http: // ww w .st udio e .co .uk/fut ure c lass.htm l# This is part ly repre se nt at ive of the influe nce of the eco nom y which was pro po sed earlie r to be ve ry appare nt in Educat io n bo th in term s of the curriculum and its design. Lev e lling a crit ic ism of co ndit io ning at scho o ls, offic e - t y pe env iro nm e nts which are base d on stat ic behav io ur wo uld seem to detrac t from a genuine inte re st in the indiv idual child an d co nt radict motiv e s fo r enge nde ring creat iv ity . The curre nt prefe re nc e fo r lo nge r cycle s in scho o l building, co nt rast ing with the prefabric at e d expe rie nce fo llow ing the Wo rld War II, means that the co nce nt rat io n on aest he t ics must be co nside re d very care fully . F am iliarity may well unde rmine the pursuit of inspiring childre n thro ugh aest he t ic s early in the life of the new schoo l. Finally , despit e the intro duc t io n of som e so ft e r furnishings which are gene rally asso c iat e d with the applic at io n of theo rie s of learning sty les, such as tho se of Gardne r (199 3 ) and Ko lb & Fry (197 5) , this is still on the basis of very clear dem arc at io n and labe lling of space in which specific areas are creat e d fo r eithe r fo rm al learning or mo re social, info rm al space . Mo re bro adly this thesis co nt e nd s that the appro ac h to perso nalise d learning relat e s to such cate gorisat io n of space and is one of encro ac hm e nt on so cial and outdoo r space s witho ut co nside rat io n of the redesign of the mo re fo rm al learning space s; in these there appe ars to be a reliance on techno lo gy to effe c t cult ural change (Rudd, 200 8 b; Heppe ll et al. 200 4 ) arguably risk ing furt he r com prom ise of childre n?s phy sic al and social expre ssio n. 8 0 2.2 Summary T he notio n of child - c e nt re d schoo ls has evo lv e d over many years, from narrow inte rpre t at io ns of healt h, to encom pass mo re and mo re face ts of a child?s well- be ing in which the philo so phic al debat e thro ugho ut the 20 th Cent ury becam e suppo rted by Piage t ?s (19 75 ) scie nt ific view of childre n and their dev e lo pm e nt . On balanc e , howev er, hist o ry reve als that schoo l archite c t s were bro adly making adv anc es in the applic at io n of new building metho ds and mate rials co ntribut ing to the basic s of scho o l design whilst unsuc c essful in rev e aling how a meaningful co nt ribut io n can be made to childre n?s learning and bro ade r well- be ing. There are exce pt io ns ho wev e r, and the Medds in the po st - W ar era began designing to delibe rat e ly stim ulate the natural tende nc ie s of the child, co nside ring archite c t ural so lut io ns which promo t e d inv e st igat iv e , self - dire ct e d learning. Ho wev e r, this chapt e r has indic at e d sev e ral reaso ns why these mo re radic al co nce pt s faile d . T he open plan expe rie nc e indic at e d th at while co st co nce rns co nt ribute d to mainly bland env iro nme nt s in which the diffe re nt iate d space of Finm e re Schoo l was fo rsake n, teache rs were able to ov erride the design and rev ert to tradit io nal pract ic e . Addit io nally , the fo rbe arance of the classroom h as been accom panie d by slo w dev e lo pme nt of furnit ure altho ugh, while the design inte nt evo lv e d to encom pass adapt abilit y and mov eme nt in the learning env iro nm e nt , its actual use has been at odds with these motiv at io ns. The respo nse of teache rs is indic at iv e of a schoo l cult ure which has repe at e dly prev aile d when challe nge d by the effo rts of large ly well- inte nde d design, indic at ing that there is som e t hing othe r than a child?s inve st igat iv e nature which needs to be co nside re d. Despite the prom ine nt discussi o n abo ut the dev e lo pme nt of the indiv idual child, Chapt e r 1 sugge ste d that the dom inant co nce rn is arguably ho w childre n will fit into socie ty and acce pt able behav io ur which this require s. Preparing, or even co ndit io ning, childre n to operate in an adult wo rld, where Harv ey (198 1) argue s orde re d physic al mov em e nt and personal space is highly value d, is po te nt ial ly lim it ing childre n?s deve lo pm e nt . Furt he rmo re while designe rs are being aske d to revo lut io nise the schoo l, scho o l s are incre asingly being aske d to take on the tradit io nal respo nsibilit ie s of the fam ily (Olso n, 2003 ) which has a dire c t im pac t at a behav io ural leve l in schoo ls . Hence , r athe r than a discussio n of philo so phy in which so cie t a l and eco nom ic dem ands of the child are weighe d against their indiv idualit y , the env iro nme nt which reflec t s co ntainm e nt rathe r than attainm e nt and a hom o ge no us view of childre n appe ars to relat e mo re to the dem ands of the daily organisat io n of scho o ls. Acc ording to Po llard?s (19 85 ) prim ary scho o l obse rv at io ns of 8 1 schoo l value s, ?... we see the em phasis of attribut e s which co uld be said to meet indust rial needs in term s of preparing a produc t iv e and com pliant workfo rce ,? yet no ting the super se de nc e of ?teac he rs? pract ic al co nce rn with sust aining order and discipline ( p.1 09 ) .? Mo reo ve r, refle c t ing on estim at e s that a signific ant pro po rt io n of a teache r?s tim e is spent organising chil dre n, space and mate rials, Dean (20 08 ) co nt e nds that it is in everyo ne ?s inte re st to reduc e such tim e to the minim um . It is po ssible that the phy sic al env iro nm e nt is co m plic it in this organisat io nal ro le and has even dete r m ine d aspec t s of the enduring nature of Educat io n in the sense that the sett ing and its co nt e nt s pre- date mainst ream teaching. In this way the organisat io n of childre n has co nt inue d to guide the majo rit y of our prim ary scho o ls to wards predic t able hall -classrooms-playground archit e c t ure and suppo rt ing, co nt ro lling furnit ure . The well - be ing mo de l prese nt e d in Chapte r 1 rev e aled that well - be ing is so cially deriv e d and argue d that the possibilit ies of a child?s well- be ing in this so cial co nt e x t are like ly to be dete rm ine d cult urally . In a schoo l co nt e xt , this appe ars manifest itse lf in the den ial of r eco gnise d bene fit s of mo ve me nt and phy sic al activ ity in learning (Woo d, 199 8) , an argum e nt reinforc e d by the reje c t io n of open plan. Furt he rmo re it is appare nt that Victo rian so cial and eco nom ic aspirat io ns fo r scho o ls were no t at odds yet, to day , they appear to be: childre n are expe ct e d to think diffe re nt ly but no t to behav e diffe re nt ly . The eco nom y is arguably pulling childre n away from som e of the tradit io nal co nst raints of scho o l, although po ssibly still in a ho moge no us way , but socie t al dem ands and schoo l cult ure co nt inue s to draw them back to co nt ro lle d behav io ur in which the so cial and phy sic al aspec t s of well- be ing are co nst rain e d. The synchro nic ity require d betwe en achie ve me nt and acce pt able behav io ur addit io nally leads to the sugge st io n that behav io ur in a mainst re am schoo l will hav e a stro ng bearing on the possibilit ie s of the curric ulum and perhaps even result in childre n per ce iv ing their achie v em e nt at schoo l in behav io ural term s. The seem ingly retro grade aspe c t s of so cialisat io n and organisat io n are arguably inco nsist e nt with the aspirat io nal motive s of design and the bro ade r co nt e x t of Educat io n rem ains large ly unspok e n in new designs. I t is nece ssary there fo re that this cultural co nte x t be inve st igated in orde r to find way s to creat e cult ure s and suppo rt ing env iro nm e nt s which broade n the po ssibilit ie s of a child?s well- be ing. 8 2 Addit io nally there is an indic at io n that the p rim ary fo cus on archite c t ure may have been overem phasise d. The relat io nship betw e e n archit e ct ure and the othe r elem e nt s of the phy sic al schoo l there fo re need s to be co nside re d in relat io n to the who le schoo l . 8 3 Chapter 3: Well-being at school - Children?s views 3.1 Introduction Chapt e r 1 and Chapt e r 2 rev ie we d scho o l design using two diffe re nt approac he s and bro adly arriv e d at very sim ilar co nclusio ns . Eithe r by start ing fro m a psy cho lo gic al perspe ct iv e and apply ing the co nclusio ns to design, or vice versa, the thesis obse rve s the phy sic al env iro nme nt and inde e d the pract ic e of mainst re am prim ary schoo ls to be subjec t to a stro ng cult ural tradit io n ; Ch apt e r 2 ident ifie d this as deriv ing large ly fro m the Vict o rian era. In turn, the relat io nship betw ee n a child?s well - be ing and their phy sical scho o l wo uld appe ar to be dire c t ed by this prev ailing cult ure . There fo re , while well- be ing can be co nside re d to b e fundam e nt ally so cially derived, it is predict e d that the nature of schoo l cult ure guide s how it is sense d. This is loo se ly relat e d to the child?s future abilit y to operat e within so cie t y and within the eco nom y but arguably mo re dire c t ly relat e d to the ne eds of scho o l organisat io n and the meet ing of targe t s. In this way well- be ing lo gic ally appe ars to be guide d towards co nce rns of behav io ur and achie ve me nt . This can be view e d as the overlay ing of subje c t iv ity on the well - be ing mo de l. Altho ugh the well - be ing mo de l pro v ide s a valuable too l with which to engage a scho o l in debat e abo ut its env iro nm e nt , alo ne it does no t pro v ide the subje ct iv e co nt ex t relat ing to its childre n and its cult ure with which to appro ac h design in an info rm e d way . Ho w, fo r exam ple , is a child?s phy sic al expre ssio n perce ive d and what is acce ptable or unacc e pt able in the co urse of a schoo l day ? T his unde rst anding cert ainly affe c t s ho w effec t ive design will be appro ac he d and equally how design might facilit at e cult ural change . Furt he rmo re , it is po ssible that in reality this subje c t iv it y no t only lim it s the phy sic al env iro nm e nt but also rest ric t s the evo lut io n of the curric ulum ; effo rt s to wards perso nalise d learning, discusse d prev io usly , appe ar to incre asingly infringe on perce ive d wisd om relat ing to behav io ur. To furt he r dev e lo p an underst anding of ho w cult ure guide s the child?s sense of well - be ing to wards fulfilling so cie t al, eco nom ic and organisat io nal ends, the explo rat io n of well- be ing in respe c t to the psy cho lo gical realit y of scho o ls and its sett ing is the furt her challe nge of this and subse que nt chapt ers. Co nspic uo usly , the debate offe re d in this thesis so far, while discussing childre n at lengt h, has been who lly info rm e d by adult s. In dev e lo ping an unde rst anding of child - c e nt re d schoo ls it is no t 8 4 eno ugh fo r childre n to be cent ral to the discussio n; they must , as Burke & Gro sveno r (200 3 ) co nt e nd, be invo lv e d , part ic ularly if childre n?s indiv idualit y is to be reco gnise d. The co nv e rsat io n with Christo phe r at Scho o l B in Figure 3-1 illust rat es a child?s perspe ct ive which is unpre dic t able and it wo uld seem there fo re that it sho uld no t be assu m e d. Figure 3-1 A conversation with Christopher at School B Author: So where does this corridor go to? Christopher: Nursery Author: And what do you think about this corridor? Christopher: They could change the colour Author: What colour would it be? Christopher: Orange Author: And what about the things in it? There are all sorts of things on the wall. Christopher: Pots ?em out! Author: What would you do? Christopher: Pots ?em out! Author: Pots them out? Christopher: Scrap it? Author: What get rid of everything so you?d just have a bright orange corridor? What about these plants? What do you think of those? Christopher: Too many Author: Too many plants? So we?ve got too much on the walls and too many plants. What about all the books? Christopher: Keep ?em Author: Why would we keep them? Christopher: Because they?re nice and we?ll read them 8 5 There is a vo ice d co nse nsus of opinio n in schoo l design that childre n need to be co nsult e d abo ut their phy sic al env iro nm e nt (Clark , 200 5 ; Dude k , 2005 ; Burke & Gro sve no r, 2003 ) . As the design philo so phy errs towards the indiv idualise d co nce pt io n of the child - c e nt re d schoo l, then unde rst anding the indiv idual child , intuit ive ly , can be viewe d as esse nt ial. Dudek sugge st s that ?childre n need to be obse rve d and list e ne d to in orde r fo r their prio rit ie s to be unde rst oo d (200 5, p.v ii) .? With this approac h, Clark (200 5 ) maint ains that a much mo re child - c e nt red archit e c t ure can be achiev e d by acknowle dging the child?s perspe c tiv e . In othe r wo rds, ?.... childre n hav e their own activ it i e s and their own time and th eir own space (Qvo rt rup, Bardy , Sgrit t a & Wint e rsbe rge r, 199 4 ) .? Design rese arc h has an im po rt ant co nt ribut io n to make . In pract ice scho o l archit ec t s ofte n com plain that their ability to invo lv e childre n in the design pro ce ss is com prom ised by budge t s and tim esc ale s which, it is argue d, can ?lim it the qualit y of the env iro nm e nt, and make it less suit able for yo ung childre n (Clark , 200 5 , p.1 ) .? Sim ilarly Burke (20 06 ) po int s out that , ?Childre n occupy and respo nd to designe d space s, ofte n witho ut cho ice while they are rare ly invo lve d in decisio n making abo ut the visual and mate rial co ndit io ns that surro und them (p.1 ) .? Despite an unre m ark able co nt ribut io n to date , researc h sho uld be info rm ing this gap which archit e c ts do no t nece ssarily have the tim e or reso urc e s to b ridge . Chapt e r 3 begins the prim ary inve st igat io n of this thesis by co nside ring what a child - c e nt re d schoo l might co nsist of from the perspec t iv e of the child, using the well - be ing mo de l as a start ing refe re nce po int . In Chapt e r 1 the manife st at io n of well - be ing, altho ugh a com ple x co nst ruc t , was describe d in fairly sim ple term s of co nt e ntm e nt (Veenho v e n, 1991 ; Roy o, 2007 ) . There fo re , exte nding this princ iple , this chapt e r asks what children co nsc io usly think make s them feel go o d, or happy , at schoo l and wh et he r they naturally and of their own vo lit io n cite aspec t s of the phy sic al scho o l, whet he r place s or obje ct s, as co nt ribut o ry to their sense of well- be ing. 3.1.1 The schools involved T he rese arc h was carrie d out in two prim ary scho o ls: Scho o l S in So ut ham pto n a nd Scho o l A near Ando v e r , pro file d in Appe ndix 4 . T he findings are supple me nt e d by obse rv at io nal rese arc h carrie d out in Scho o l B in Birm ingham . 3.1.2 Ethics T he rese arc h activ it y describe d in this chapte r was sanct io ne d by the Creat iv it y & Cult ure Ethic s Com m i t t ee at Bucks New Univ e rsity . Addit io nally , parent s? co nse nt fo r their childre n to take part 8 6 and fo r phot o graphs to be take n of the proce ss was gaine d in adv ance of the res e arc h ( See Appe ndix 5 ). Co he n et al. (200 0 ) d escribe the im po rt anc e of non- maleficence which means that no phy sic al or psy cho lo gical harm sho uld co me to the part ic ipant as a result of the rese arc h, placing the well- be ing of the childre n, in this case , abov e the rese arc h aim s. This was stric t ly adhe re d to altho ugh, in pract ic e , the studie s describe d in this chapte r were no t conside re d to be po te nt ially harm ful to the childre n and there were no obje c t io ns to part ic ipat io n. These studie s were cho se n as intro duc to ry studies which wo uld reve al the nature o f perce iv e d well- be ing and attac hme nt in schoo ls, but also as a means of dev e lo ping trust with bo th the childre n and the adult s (teac he rs and learning assist ant s) . In reality it was feasible that the adult s might feel most sensit ive or defe nsive abo ut the childre n?s repo rt s describing goo d and bad day s. Fo r this reaso n, building a trust ing relat io nship with the adult s was also very im port ant . It was decide d that two day s should be spent support ing each class prio r to the studies in orde r to gain trust . 3.2 Study 1: Good day, bad day 3.2.1 Aim T he co nce pt of hav ing good day s and bad days is a fam iliar co nve rsat io n po int . Whet he r it is in relat io n to wo rk, schoo l or leisure , peo ple will gene rally be able to offe r reaso ning as to the fact o rs they feel hav e co ntribut e d. C hapt e r 1 maint ain e d that design predom inant ly co nt ribut e s to well - be ing by repe at e dly influe nc ing childre n?s daily expe rie nc e s and so discove ring childre n?s perspe c t iv e s on go o d and bad day s at schoo l is a natural start to the prim ary rese arc h proce ss. Th e aim of the Good Day Bad Day study was to rev e al the nature of childre n?s aware ne ss of their own well - be ing and, po te nt ially , comm o n patt e rns in the way childre n in two diffe re nt schoo ls perce ive well - be ing. It was also expe ct e d that , thro ugh this enquiry , the subjec t iv e schoo l wo uld be expo se d in relat io n to fact o rs like gende r, age, so cio - e co nom ic backgro und, relat io nships and schoo l cult ure , fo r exam ple. It has been put fo rw ard that well - be ing is great ly influe nc e d by the child?s so cial wo rld and that t he scho o l will dete rm ine , to an exte nt , the funct io ning of this social wo rld. Chapt e r 2 also predic t e d the im po rtanc e of what is co nside re d to be go o d behav io ur and achieve me nt and how the env iro nm e nt reflec t s this; the aim is to asce rt ain the reality of t his predic t io n and mo re gene rally to unde rst and childre n?s perspe ct ive s on how the etho s of the scho o l affe c t s their daily expe rie nce . 8 7 The study does no t explic it ly inve st igate the relat io nship betw ee n well - be ing and the phy sic al schoo l; such rese arc h will be carrie d out in Chapt e r 4 onwards. Howev e r, it is of inte re st to see whet he r childre n, unprompt e d, make any co nne ct io n with the phy sical scho o l, or if any relat io nship is im plie d. Certainly repo rt s abo ut behav io ur can ofte n be direc t ly relat e d to the en v iro nm e nt in which the behav io ur take s place , as Zeise l (200 6) argue s. 3.2.2 Methodology Chapt e r 1 explaine d that the quant it at iv e rese arc h metho ds used to study specific aspe c ts of a child?s expe rie nc e at schoo l were lim it e d in pro v iding a co nsist e nt and co hesive unde rst anding. The study in this chapt e r is qualit at iv e , using co nt e nt analy sis (Krippe ndo rff, 2004) to inte rpret childre n?s perspec t ive s on their well- be ing. Phot o elicitat io n is used t o stim ulat e childre n?s respo nses (Harpe r, 2002 ) . Qualit at ive metho ds are gene rally cho se n in orde r to inv e st igate the indiv idual and their unique ne ss (Co he n et al., 2000 ) which it is predic te d will rev e al som et hing of the relat io nship betw ee n indiv idualisat io n/pe rso nalisat io n and so cialisat io n in schoo l. So far well- be ing has been describe d as a co m ple x co nce pt and inve st igat ing it with prim ary age childre n prese nt s im po rt ant issue s of language and metho d (Bre akw e ll, 2006 ) . Michalo s (2007 ) asse rt s the manifest at io n of well- be ing can be sim plifie d to feelings of happine ss or co nt e nt me nt and inv e st igat ing ha ppine ss is a useful appro ac h to apply with childre n to indic ate mo re co m ple x ho list ic feelings of life satisfac t io n and co nte ntm e nt (Woo dill et al., 199 4 ) . In this chapt e r the co nce pt of well - be ing is there fo re inv e st igate d in relat io n to childre n?s repo rt s of feeling happy or unhappy at schoo l. Childre n were prese nt e d with an im age of a charac te r leav ing their scho o l and were aske d to tell the charac te r?s sto ry . The charac te r was a cart oo n charac t e r and was delibe rat e ly andro gy no us to avo id childre n assigning a gende r and po te nt ially dise ngaging fro m the charac t e r. It was predic te d that the childre n wo uld typic ally attribut e their own feelings and expe rie nce to the charac te r. The use of im agery rathe r than verbal or writ te n explanat io n was cho se n so that the childre n were no t led to co nclusio ns prio r to start ing the activ it y , altho ugh it was nece ssary to ident ify the scenario depic te d in the image . The sto ryt e lling was in the fo rm of a draw ing or writ ing. Ro binso n (19 94 ) , fo r exam ple , ident ifie s the use of childre n?s acco unt s in the fo rm of pict ure s or sto ries to be highly valuable . This 8 8 suppo rt s Clark (200 5 ) who maint ains that offe ring childre n a varie ty of way s to co nt ribut e is im po rt ant altho ugh it is reco gnise d that, despite the optio ns, this study operat e d within the co nfine s of an A4 pape r- base d task. The study was inco rpo rated into a no rm al class activ ity within the classroom . N eit he r the metho d used no r the balance betwe e n writ ing and draw ing was presc ribe d to the teacher who was intro duc ing the study to allo w fo r any cult urally specific appro ac he s to prev ail. While it is reco gnise d that the classro om appro ac h carrie s an inhe re nt risk of childre n influe nc ing each othe r and adult s influe nc ing the childre n, it was prefe rre d to the one -to-one alternat iv e . A class study, intro duc e d and facilit ate d by the class teache r, meant that the study was less like ly to be co nside re d unusual by the childre n. The inst ruc t io n co uld also be co nsist e nt . In a one - t o - o ne scenario the situat io n may hav e been inhibit ing fo r som e , part ic ularly carrie d out with an adult whom the childre n were less fam iliar with. The time fact o r relate d to com ple t ing what was co nside re d an intro duc t o ry study with 104 childre n was also deem e d pro hibit ive and po te nt ially unne c e ssarily disrupt ive to the class. 3.2.2.1 Participants T he study was carrie d out with childre n from two classe s in Scho o l S and Schoo l A. In Scho o l S the classe s were a Year 1/ 2 class (t he Pandas) and a Year 5 class (the Barrac udas) . In Scho o l A a Year 1/2 class (the Turt le s) and a Year 5/ 6 class (Class 3) too k part . In to tal 104 children were invo lve d. 3.2.2.2 Standardised instructions T he study was carrie d out as a classroom exerc ise led by the teache r. In Part 1, the childre n were sho w n an im age on their inte rac t iv e whit e bo ard of an elat e d carto o n charac te r leav ing their schoo l (See Figure 3 - 2 ). The scho o l in the backgro und of this image was change d according to which schoo l the childre n atte nde d. The moo d of the charac t e r was discusse d with the childre n as a gro up to ensure it was unde rst oo d that the charact er was leav ing schoo l at the end of a day and was happy . It was also clarifie d that the happy charac te r had had a go o d day at scho o l. The childre n were then aske d to ?tell? the sto ry of the charac t e r?s day by means of writ ing or draw ing. The childre n were give n a piece of pape r (A4 or A5) and acce ss to no rm al and colo ure d pencils. They were allo w e d appro x im ate ly 20 - 2 5 minute s to com ple te the task. 8 9 Once the Good Day part had been co m ple t e d, the childre n were co lle ct ive ly show n the im age of the dejec t e d carto o n charac t e r leav ing their schoo l (See Figure 3 - 3 ) and were aske d to tell the charac t e r?s Bad Day sto ry in exact ly the sa m e way . Figure 3-2 A good day at School A Figure 3-3 A bad day at School A 9 0 3.2.2.3 Evaluation of the responses and presentation of results A co nte nt analy sis appro a ch was applie d to evaluat e the respo nse s. In bo th schoo ls it was obse rv e d that these response s typic ally cov e re d a varie t y of diffe re nt reaso ns why the charac te r had expe rie nce d a go o d or a bad day . These reaso ns were ofte n only loo se ly relate d to one ano t he r and were som e t ime s entire ly unre lat e d. Fo r this reaso n each refe re nc e to a co nt ributo ry fact o r was reco rde d unde r a relev ant heading, like achievement or play for exam ple , rathe r than try ing to sum marise the overall po int of the child?s work . Each fact or was treat e d equally and the result s are prese nt e d as the num be r of refe re nc e s within each cate go ry as a perce nt age of the to tal num be r of refe re nc e s made . The findings of the study are prese nt e d by scho o l and by class, in each show ing a table giv ing the perce nt age of reaso ns fo r a go o d or bad day which fall within cert ain cate go rie s. 3.2.3 Children?s responses 3.2.3.1 School A 3.2.3.1.1 A good day at school - Year 1 & 2 Turtles T able 3 - 1 illust rat e s the highe st ranke d cate go rie s base d on the refe re nce s made by the Turt le childre n. The first fo ur catego rie s, which all relat e to succe ss in learning, represent over 45% of all refe re nce s made by the childre n to a goo d day at schoo l. These rankings rev e al that the Turt le s? reaso ning is stro ngly direc t e d towards the achie vem e nt cult ure of the schoo l and within this cult ure it is clear that the childre n alloc at e impo rt anc e to accom pany ing reco gnit io n and reward. The rem aining cate go rie s are less signific ant altho ugh com bining Play , Friends , and Helping others , which are all indic ato rs of the so cial nature of the schoo l, acco unt s fo r appro x im at e ly 16% of all refe re nc e s. A smalle r num be r of refe renc e s were made dire ct ly to the phy sic al env iro nm e nt of the scho o l, nam e ly the table s and the carpe t area in the classroom . These were refe rre d to as place s in which the childre n enjoy e d learnin g and so , addit io nally , by asso c iat io n were link e d to the learning cult ure of the schoo l. 9 1 Rank % Category 1 14.1% Achievement 2 12.5% Reward 3 10.9% Recognition 4 9.4% Particular lessons 5 6.3% Drawing Table Play 8 4.7% Friends Floor/carpet Helping others Table 3-1 A good day at School A Year 1 & 2 T he respo nse s of the childre n yielde d a valuable so urce of anecdo t al evide nc e in suppo rt of these findings. Fo r exam ple , referring to her sum s, Sam ant ha say s ?Miss March tikt them and she got them all right .? Sim ilarly Natasha write s that ?the teche r sead well do n the teche r was very pro ud.? Bo th comm e nt s im ply the ro le that the teache r play s in a goo d day . Danie l also sugge st s ho w the judgm e nts of the teache r may hav e a dete rm ining effe c t on whet he r the charact e r has had a goo d day . His charac te r has had a goo d day as a result of being, ? star of the day because he did maths and was very goo d.? The star of the day is the Turtle child who has wo rke d, achie ve d or behave d part ic ularly well that day and is cho se n by the teache r or learning assist ant in the clas s. Maria also refe rs to the reco gnit io n of achie vem e nt , writ ing abo ut a goo d piece of wo rk which was ?put upo n the wall.? Once again it is the teache r who will decide whet he r a piece of wo rk is go o d and its appe arance on the wall will indic ate to the child that they have do ne well. While nearly half of all refere nc e s refe r to aspe ct s of learning, of lesse r im po rt anc e in the list sho w n in Table 3 - 1 a re refere nc e s to play and inte rac t io n with frie nds. Gabrie l ment io ns gett ing on well with othe r childre n whilst Came ro n describe s the charact e r play ing with a toy digge r during which, ?sum o ne cam e and play d with him .? 9 2 3.2.3.1.2 A bad day at school - Year 1 & 2 Turtles ... when he was do ing sum s ano t he r child was siting by him and scribe d (scribble d) on his pes (pie ce ) of pappe r (Samant ha) . Rank % Category 1 17% Children being mean 2 14% Getting hurt Unfairness 4 11% Particular lessons Doing work again 6 6% Possessions Boys Accidents Ability 10 3% Reward Girls Older children Bullying Table 3-2 A bad day at School A Year 1 & 2 Vie w s of a bad day at schoo l , sho w n in Table 3 - 2 , rev eal the signific ant influe nc e of othe r childre n on the qualit y of a Turt le child?s day . Many indic ate a lo w leve l of inte rfe re nce which tro uble s them: ?he was doo ing nume rac y and two of t he year 2 bo y s were distrac t ing him ;? Natasha refe rs to this negat iv e influe nce asso c iat ing it with olde r boys. The appe aranc e of bo th bo y s and girls as reaso ns why a child may hav e a bad day indic at e s the signific anc e of gende r. In addit io n to this, Natas ha ?s com me nt s im ply disquie t betw ee n the older bo y s and the rest of the class. This asso c iat io n will be expo se d furt he r in Chapte r 5. Childre n being mean co nt ribut e large ly to a bad day at schoo l. It is uncle ar at what age the dist inc t io n betwe e n being mean and bully ing is evident but what is clear is that the Turt le s? day s can co ntain a degree of conflic t . 9 3 He has had a bad day at scho o l because sumw o n had his car and sho t it of the car mat and it bro c to pesis and he toow d the teechr. This sent im e nt from Harry , whilst sugge st ing the im port anc e of po sse ssio ns, illustrat e s the view that the teache r is seen as the arbit rato r and regulat ing autho rity within the class. No tably there fo re the childre n freque nt ly refe r to fairne ss in the way that the teache r deal s with pro ble ms. Fo r exam ple the sense of injust ice when the ?o ffe nde rs? are not reprimande d is crucial: ?so the tay ch (teac he r) did (no t ) tel (any )o ne off at all (Oliv e r) .? The Turt le s co nt inue to reve al the influe nc e of the teache r?s decisio ns on tho ught s abo ut goo d and bad day s at schoo l. Fo r exam ple , sev e ral respo nses indic at e d the anguish asso c iate d with hav ing to do wo rk again. Gabrie l describes this affe c t ing the charact e r in quest ion: ?he has had a bad day at schoo l because he acsadant le (accide nt ally) yo o sd (use d) the wro ng side of his pencle (penc il) . He tride to rub it out but it go t crecd (cre ase d) up and he had to start it agin and he did no t finish it. He had to catch up.? Oliv ia reve als two co nne c te d fears which emerge in the commo t io n of the play gro und: the daunt ing pro spe c t of bigger childre n and the daily occurre nc e of childre n hurt ing them se lv e s. She describe s an ?owlde r child ran in to him and he fell ov er.? Returning to the exam ple of Harry ?s car being bro ke n, there is a stro ng refe re nce to the child?s po sse ssio ns and this occurre d in a small num be r of the respo nse s. This is also relat e d to the use of the Turt le as a mo tiv at io n to o l; the pro spe c t of ?owning? the turt le , ho we ve r sho rt - liv e d, is an im po rt ant co nside rat io n in childre n?s inte ract io n with obje c ts and their well- be ing. 3.2.3.1.3 A good day at school - Year 5 & 6 Class 3 I feel go o d when I come hom e from schoo l if I reciev e a com plim e nt that make s me warm inside . I also feel goo d when I get a goo d sco re in a test because it feels like a g reat achie v eme nt . I also like it when I have all my fav o urite subje c ts in one day I feel go o d because I hav e fun. I feel go o d when i get a cert ific ate or an award (Sarah) . The respo nse s of Class 3 illust rat e d in Tab le 3 - 3 d emonst rat e a pro gre ssio n of the achiev em e nt cult ure which was evide nt with the yo unge r Turt le s. In part ic ular, the reward of stick e rs or the turt le to take hom e has been replac e d by a syst em of ho use po ints. In Class 3 ho use po int s lead to credits and parties and the winning of the ho use po int cup by the ho use with the highe st num be r of po int s. 9 4 Rank % Category 1 11.6% Housepoints 2 10.1% Friends 3 9.3% Recognition 4 8.5% Particular Lessons Achievement 6 7.0% Fun 7 5.4% Reward 8 3.9% Certificates 9 3.1% Tests Playtime Play Told off Table 3-3 A good day at School A Year 5 & 6 Jak e , mixing the charact e r up with him se lf as many of the childre n did, cele brate s the fact that ?I go t 14 teen ho use po ins and gett ing all my play time s and sm illing.? He highlight s the pract ice of reward fo r go o d behav io ur and achie ve me nt and punishm e nt fo r poo r behav io ur, like lo sing play t ime . This balanc e betw e e n reward and punishme nt is also reve ale d by Benjam in who explains that the ?child is co m ing out of schoo l happy because he did perfec t in scho o l and he didn?t get to ld of(f) ?. Such com me nt s abo ut a goo d day at schoo l indic at e the im po rt ance of a teache r?s judgm e nts on ho w much the child enjoy s their tim e at schoo l. It is also clear that the crit e ria fo r these judgm e nt s are well unde rsto o d. Reco gnit io n of abilit y emerge s as a theme in the childre n? s co nce pt io ns of well - be ing. Fo r exam ple , Geo rgia explains that ?a goo d day is when yo u mo ve up a gro up in a subje ct ,? and Vict o ria, on her goo d day, explains that the ?teac he r said I was in a to p gro up.? Within this fam iliar mix of achie v eme nt , behav io ur, reco gnit io n and reward, the im port anc e of frie nds em erge s mo re precise ly than in the same study with the Turt le s. The greate r com ple x it y of the childre n?s relat io nships is illust rat e d in Harry ?s co mm e nt that a go o d day is one where ?his frie nds were nice to him .? At this stage Harry ?s so cial stat us is uncle ar 9 5 but refe re nc e to frie nds rathe r than less clo se childre n being nice appe ars to indicat e insec urit y within his frie ndships. Altho ugh Ro by n sugge st s that ?she go t to use her new pens,? posse ssio ns and obje c t s appear to a much lesse r degre e com pare d with the Turt le s. 3.2.3.1.4 A bad day at school - Year 5 & 6 Class 3 I do n?t feel very go o d if the teache r sho ut s at me. I don?t like it when my frie nds break up with me because I feel lo nely . If so me bo dy tease s me or calls me nam e s, I feel like I?m co ld inside . If I have all my least fav o urite subjec t s in a day I do n?t feel go o d. I do n?t like it when som e bo dy crit isise s my work, I do n?t feel go o d. This do esn?t usually happe n tho ugh (Sarah) . Rank % Category 1 13% Friends 2 11% Housepoints 3 8% Particular lessons Told Off Getting hurt Falling out Children being mean Headteacher 9 4% Unfairness Punishment Table 3-4 A bad day at School A Year 5 & 6 I n Table 3 - 4 , s i gnific ant ly , a bad day fo r Class 3 cent re s on the sam e facto rs as a go o d day , but describe s oppo sing scenario s. In this case a bad day mo st ly invo lve s falling out with frie nds and lo sing h o use po int s. So cial and behav io ural aspe c ts of a schoo l day take prece de nce in Class 3?s evaluat io ns. 9 6 The appe arance of the headt e ac he r in the list of co nt ribut o rs to a bad day illust rat e s her perce ive d ro le as the ultimat e autho rity in the scho o l with reg ards to behav io ur and discipline and perhaps an incre ase d tensio n with autho rit y as the childre n get olde r. Gett ing hurt is a co nt inuing them e and illust rat e s that it is not only relat e d to the sm alle st childre n in the schoo l. Rathe r, it is test am e nt to the highly energet ic and phy sic ally inte rac t ive liv e s that childre n of all ages gene rally lead. 3.2.3.2 School S 3.2.3.2.1 A good day at school - Year 1 & 2 Pandas In com pariso n with the Turt le s at Schoo l A, the Schoo l S Pandas paint a very differe nt pict ure of a go o d day at scho o l. While the writt e n study at Schoo l A pro v ide d some useful comm e nt ary , the draw ing and narrat ive alte rnat iv e at Scho o l S offe re d the opport unit y fo r inte rpret at io n of im ages bey o nd the writ te n wo rd ( Ro binso n, 199 4) . As an exam ple Kay le igh depic t s a go o d and a ba d day in Figure 3 - 4 and Figure 3 - 5 witho ut using any narrat iv e . The goo d day po rt ray s two happy girls who are clearly frie nds. On a bad day ho wev e r, the prese nce of the bo y behind the two cry ing girls appe ars signific ant . The co nne ct io n, seem ingly bey o nd co i nc idenc e , infe rs that bo y s are respo nsible fo r spo iling goo d day s. Figure 3-4 A good day at school - Kayleigh 9 7 Figure 3-5 A bad day at school - Kayleigh Ac hie v eme nt is lo w down on the list of co nt ribut ing fact o rs. Altho ugh Lewis does sugge st that the charac t e r ?did a lo t of wo rk,? he is an exce pt io n. Refe re nc e s made to achiev em e nt were on the who le no n - ac adem ic, part ic ularly co nne c te d with sport . In co ntrast , the im port anc e of play , frie nds and foo t ball to these childre n do m inate s. In light of the Scho o l A result s, altho ugh sticke rs were used within the class to reco gnise achie v eme nt and behav io ur, it is strik ing that they were no t ment io ne d or repre se nt e d in this study . Furt he rm ore , Manfre d, the Pandas? so ft to y equiv ale nt to the turt le did no t appe ar in relat io n to goo d days fo r these childre n. In co nt rast , Katie refe rs to the charac te r being happy ?because he drew a lo ve ly pict ure ,? and it is no tic eable that the happine ss appe ars to be deriv e d fro m the act of draw ing as oppo se d to the draw ing being reco gnise d and rewarde d. 9 8 Rank % Category 1 14.6% Friends Football Play 4 9.8% Drawing Playground 6 7.3% Sports Parents 8 4.9% Out of school Achievement 10 2.4% Particular lessons Table 3-5 A good day at School S Year 1 & 2 T he so cial aspe c t s of school figure highly in this s tudy , as Table 3 - 5 rev e als . This is im plie d in play and explic it in the childre n?s refe re nc e s to frie nds. The study expo se s the nature of this social inte rac t io n: Dav id ment io ns that on a go o d day ?eve rybo dy lets me play with them .? Whilst this is pro bably a refle ct io n of Dav id?s se lf- e ste em , and is consist e nt with Harry in Schoo l A, mo re gene rally it is a rem inde r that , in a child?s co de of co nduc t , play and inclusio n often require perm issio n fro m othe r childre n. Unlik e Scho o l A, in so me inst anc e s childre n rev e al elem e nt s of their liv e s outside of schoo l, part ic ularly fears. Michae l, whom it surface s thro ugh late r co nve rsat io ns, is wo rrie d abo ut his mothe r and fathe r arguing, reve als that on a go o d day at scho o l his mum and dad kisse d in the mo rning: ?Mum dad cissd.? Eleano r ment i o ns that she is able to see her mum at pre - sc hoo l. 3.2.3.2.2 A bad day at school - Year 1 & 2 Pandas T he mo st signific ant facto r in a bad day fo r the Scho o l A Turt le s was childre n being mean to each othe r. As Table 3 - 6 sho w s, t his is im po rtant fo r the Scho o l S Pandas too but, far mo re im po rt ant , was whet he r the childre n were gett ing on well with their frie nds. These are clo se ly relat e d but at the sam e time diffe re nt . Hav ing highlight e d the im port anc e of frie nds and play to a go o d day in what wo uld seem a very social env iro nm e nt , it wo uld appe ar that so cial diffic ult ie s are highly influe nt ial on feelings of unhappine ss. 9 9 Rank % Category 1 21% Friends 2 18% Raining 3 11% Children being mean 4 7% Getting hurt (Unable to) play 6 4% Particular lessons Too hot Playground Dislikes school Not allowed to do something Boys Want to be at home Bullying Boredom Table 3-6 A bad day at School S Year 1 & 2 W hile feelings of inclusio n were im po rt ant , as Figure 3 - 6 co nv e ys, a them e which diffe r s betw ee n the two Year 1/ 2 classe s at the scho o ls is the occasio nal refe re nc e to bully ing made at Scho o l S. This was rare term ino lo gy fo r both age gro ups at Schoo l A. Figure 3-6 Not being allowed to play - School S 1 00 Ano t he r facto r which did no t emerge at Scho o l A was the recurre nc e of rain and bad weat her as a theme , depict e d in one of the draw ings sho w n in Figure 3 - 7 ; the l o gic al explanat io n is that bad weat he r is linke d to children being unable to play at play t im e and luncht im e but it is com mo n fo r teache rs to cite the effe c t of weat he r on childre n?s mo o ds and behav io ur despite , as Mo o re (199 9) indic at es, lack of rese arc h. Figure 3-7 Bad weather, bad day - School S No t ably the only refe re nc es made to the academ ic scho o l are tho se which relate to lesso ns which the childr e n do not like . For inst anc e , Katie ment io ns that the charac t er is sad ?because he had num e racy .? 3.2.3.2.3 A good day at school - Year 5 Barracudas T he co nsist e nt theme s reve ale d betw ee n the yo unger and the olde r classe s at Scho o l A emphasise d a com mo n cultural lin k of achiev em e nt , reco gnit io n and reward. A comm o n cult ural link is also evide nt in the respo nse s at Scho o l S sh ow n in Table 3 - 7 : t he Barrac udas? mo st cite d reaso n fo r hav ing a go o d day is po sit iv e inte rac t io n with frie nds. Altho ugh favo urit e lesso ns were ment io ne d by the childre n, refe re nc e s to achiev em e nt and learning were once mo re minim al. 1 01 Rank % Category 1 17.9% Friends 2 10.7% Football Fun 4 8.9% Sports 5 7.1% Technology Lunchtime 7 5.4% Study Particular lessons Bench ball Play Table 3-7 A good day at School S Year 5 T he co nsist e nt theme s reve ale d betw ee n the yo unger and the olde r classe s at Scho o l A emphasise d a com mo n cultural link of achiev em e nt , reco gnit io n and reward. A comm o n cult ural link is also evide nt in the respo nse s at Scho o l S: the Barrac udas? mo st cite d reason fo r hav ing a go o d day is po sit iv e inte ract io n with frie nds. Altho ugh fav o urite lesso ns were ment io ne d by the childre n, refe re nc e s to achie v eme nt and learning were once more minimal. This pict ure suppo rt s the asse rt io n of the headt e ac her of a low aspirat io nal intake in which pare nt s gene rally do not place a great d eal of im po rt anc e on their child?s academic achiev em e nt . Of no te are the things which Matt he w say s co nt ribut e to a goo d day and the unde rly ing message that he want s the day to pass mo re quick ly . He say s ?I like lapto ps because it make s the tim e go quick e r, ? and ?I like tag because it helps make the day go quick e r.? Kelly ment io ns a gam e which seem s to be a stro ng favo urit e with the class and is play e d in the schoo l hall using benche s. She say s ?I like bench ball because yo u play with yo ur frie nds and it is very very fun!!!? Sally also ment io ns the im po rt anc e of frie nds: ?what make s a goo d day fo r me is when I get to hang aro und with all my best frie nds!? The childre n are much mo re specific abo ut who their best frie nds are com pare d with Schoo l A Year 5/6 and the yo unge r Scho o l S Pandas. The respo nse s are sugge st iv e of som e stro ng relat io nships. Fo r inst anc e Pete r highlight s that ?I lo ve play ing baske t ball with Jo rdan. It make s me happy ,? and Ria refe rs to Leo na and Sally who ?che ar me up when I feel blue or w hen I?m 1 02 upse t / angry .? These com me nt s also demo nst rate an em ot io nal language and aware ne ss which were gene rally abse nt in Scho o l A?s respo nse s. The Barrac udas repre se nt a co nt inuat io n of the cult ural pict ure co nv e ye d by the Pandas and the exist e nc e of pref e rre d lesso ns is the only refe re nc e to learning in the to p ten facto rs co nt ribut ing to a goo d day . 3.2.3.2.4 A bad day at school - Year 5 Barracudas Rank % Category 1 28% Particular lessons 2 17% Fighting 3 11% Learning Children being mean 5 6% Friends Misbehaving Football Bullying Sitting for too long Feeling alone Table 3-8 A bad day at School S Year 5 T he mo st com mo n reaso n fo r the Barrac udas to have a bad day , illust rat e d in Table 3 - 8 , was sitt ing thro ugh lesso ns which the childre n did no t like: ?unhappy when it?s a who le day of my wo rst lesso ns.? At the sam e time Bethany com plains abo ut the am o unt of time they are made to sit. She repre se nt s the class? appare nt inclinat io n towards phy sic al activ it y in prefe re nc e to mo re sede nt ary academ ic activ ity . Fight ing, which was entire ly abse nt in the Schoo l A respo nse s, is the seco nd mo st im po rt ant co nt ributo r to a bad day for the Barrac udas. Oscar rues, ?fight ing make s me unhappy because that is no t what I come fo r.? Matt he w ment io ns that he hate s bully ing ?because it make s mo re peo ple sad every day .? And ?peo ple being nasty to othe r people ? is a part ic ular pro ble m fo r Em ily . 1 03 The respo nse s sugge st a degre e of antago nism in the class. Gav in, fo r exam ple , is no t happy when ?peo ple throw stuff at me and wind me up.? The study appe ars to expo se the two side s of a so cial schoo l. 3.2.4 Discussion 3.2.4.1 School culture T he Good Day Bad Day study ende av o ure d to draw conclusio ns abo ut the co nst itut io n of a child?s perce ive d well - be ing at scho o l and to shed light on any link to the psy cho lo gic al and phy sic al schoo l env iro nm e nts, where it existe d. In gene ral the respo nse s fro m Year 1/ 2 childre n at Scho o l A wo uld sugge st that their sense of well- be ing is predom inant ly dete rm ine d by perce pt ions of achie ve me nt and its asso c iat e d reward. These perce pt io ns, it seems, are dete rm ine d prim arily by the teache r who , arg uably , perso nifie s the scho o l cult ure . The result s infe r that the childre n?s sense s of well - be ing illustrat e a fo rm of depe nde nc e on the autho rit y and judgme nt of the teache r; childre n?s repo rt s of bad day s relat e no tic e ably to othe r children?s behav io ur a nd the way in which these situat io ns are manage d by the teache r. Seco ndly there is a stro ng indic at io n that childre n are being init iat e d into a school which place s a high value on academ ic achie v em e nt . Psy cho lo gists argue that co ndit io ning is require d to m ake som e t hing occu r that do es no t occur naturally , or to acce le rat e it (Hilgard, Marquis & Kim ble , 1 96 8 ) . Altho ugh Piage t (197 5 ) wo uld say that the mo tiv at io n to learn is innat e in a child, it is do ubt ful whet he r a curric u lum fo r innat e learning wo uld resem ble the natio nal curric ulum . There fo re , in order to achie v e natio nally value d educat io nal standards, it is also require d to motiv at e the childre n towards these standards. The purist s who co nt e nd that child - c e nt re d schoo ls sho uld be base d upo n the child?s natural learning inst inc t wo uld be disappo int e d by the use of stick e rs and ho use po int s but, as Skinne r (20 03 ) remark s, t he co nse que nc es of behav io u r dete rm ine the pro bability that the beha v io u r will occur again . As such t he scho o l cult ure em brace s the princ iple of operant co ndit io ning refle c te d stro ngly in the childre n?s perce pt io ns of go o d and bad day s. Bo th the basic princ iple s of Skinner (20 03 ) and the s o cial learning theo ry of Bandura (197 7) are in force here . In the olde r class, a sim ilar alle gianc e to the achie ve me nt cult ure of the schoo l is also evide nt and it wo uld appe ar that the teache r?s influe nce is no less im po rt ant . O ne child ment io ns that the charac t e r ?co uld hav e made new frie nds because he did well in th(e ) lesso ns,? which highlight s 1 04 how the schoo l cult ure can overlap with the child?s social realm to dete rm ine his po pularit y with peers. This is inve st iga te d furt he r in Chapt e r 5 . While it was no te d that the well - be ing mo de l is like ly to be shape d by the subje c t iv e schoo l, its unde rly ing objec t ive charac t e r stro ngly sugge ste d the im port anc e of the so cial scho o l. The emerge nc e of frie nds in Class 3?s descript io ns of go o d day s is there fo re like ly to rev e al a more accurat e pict ure of natural ch ildho o d behav io ur within what remains a cult ure fo cuse d on do ing well at scho o l. By com pariso n, the Schoo l S childre n prov ide a quite diffe re nt perspe c t iv e on their well- be ing. Fo r the Pandas, the yo unge r class, a go o d day is repo rt e d as a unio n of frie nd s, fo o t ball, and play . The po rt rayal is of a schoo l expe rie nc e which is perce iv e d to be explic it ly so cial, and phy sic al, in its nature . It is appare nt that the socie ty in which these and the olde r childre n operat e is mo re self - de t e rm ining than at Schoo l A. Co nclusio ns base d on this init ial study wo uld suggest that the teache r and othe r adult figure s in the schoo l were less influe nt ial in dete rm ining the child?s sense of well- be ing and in fram ing of their so cial ident it ie s. Figure 3 - 8 illust rat es how childre n?s repo rt s at each scho o l po int towards diffe rent elem e nts of well- be ing (sho w n in whit e) reflec t ing the subje c t iv e nature of the scho o l cult ure and so ciet y . The overall dist inct io n betwe e n the schoo ls is im po rt ant and wo uld appe ar to be evide nc e of a diffe re nc e in the ro le adults take in dete rm ining a child?s well- be ing bo th in terms of dire c t ing them to wards academ ic achie v em e nt and managing their so cial inte rac t io n. Supe rfic ially it appe ars to be a quest io n of what is co nside re d to be of value fo r the child?s future we ll- be ing and, arguably , relate s stro ngly to the perspec t ive of the comm unit y the schoo l is part of. While Schoo l S wo rks within the sa m e natio nal framew o rk and their academ ic attainm e nt is lo wer, Ro usse au (20 04 ) might argue that the respo nse s are those of childre n in a mo re child - c e nt re d schoo l. Howev e r, the childre n?s repo rts fro m Scho o l S also indic at e a more fract io us so cial env iro nm e nt in which fighting, fo r exam ple , emerge s; in Scho o l A this was no t ment io ne d. The stro nge r refe re nc e s to friends at Schoo l S may also indic at e that , in a less co nt rolle d env iro nme nt , childre n can be mo re discrim inat ing and there fo re less inclusiv e . Childre n?s refe re nc e s also im ply a co m plic at e d so cial hierarc hy ; Dav id, fo r example , refe rre d to everyo ne allo w ing him to play with them im ply ing that play is no t nece ssarily the spo nt aneo us inclusiv e activ it y many wo uld like to thi nk it is (Ise nbe rg & Quise nbe rry , 2002 ) . 1 05 School S School A Figure 3-8 Contributors to well-being at school ? Children?s perspectives ? School S and A Furt he rmo re , Figure 3 - 9 in dic at e s a separate exerc ise which illust rate s the diffe rent cult ure s in bo th scho o ls and suppo rts the asse rt io n of a mo re inte nse so cial nature at School S; in this situat io n childre n expre ssed a need fo r po we r or strengt h from the scho o l cult ure which they relat e d to feeling safe . Enjoyment Enjoyment Social interaction Social interaction Participation Participation Successes Successes Recognition Recognition Stimulation Stimulation Expression Expression Relaxation Relaxation Effort Effort Physical activity Physical activity Creation Creation 1 06 3.2.4.2 The physical school T he co nne c t io ns which the childre n hav e made betw ee n their well - be ing and their phy sic al schoo l vary . In many case s there are no refe re nc e s at all where as in othe rs they are eithe r dire c t or im plie d. Chapt e r 2 focuse d mainly on the archite c t ural debat e which is where schoo l design tends to reside but pro po s e d that this debat e giv e s seco ndary co nside rat io n to furnit ure and obje ct s. The Good Day Bad Day study at Schoo l A, by rev e aling the influe nc e of the teache r, indic at e s that mo re co nt ro lla ble elem e nts like objec t s and comm unic at io n may be mo re dete rm ining of a child?s sense of well - be ing. At Scho o l S, on the othe r hand, the phy sic al and social nature of the Asked a series of questions about school and the animals which would be able to help or would make the child feel better, these were the Key Stage 2 differences between School A and School S. The size of the animal image represents the popularity of the choice. Figure 3-9 An exercise investigating the supportive culture children wanted in school 1 07 childre n?s exist e nce im plie s that space s rathe r than obje c t s can be suppo rt iv e of well- be ing if they enable this nature to be realise d. 3.2.4.2.1 Objects and cultural appropriation T he study at Schoo l A, part ic ularly , expo se d how obje ct s can be used to reinfo rc e the scho o l cult ure thro ugh co ndit io ning. In addit io n to reco gnit io n, the use of reward was a signific ant facto r in class practic e at Schoo l A. Altho ugh Sam ant ha ment ione d that she got all of her sum s right , her dire ct refe renc e to a go o d day is specific ally abo ut reco gnit io n and reward repre se nt e d by a stick e r: ?she has had a goo d day at sc ho o l because she go t a stike r fo r sums.? Beth also illust rat e s the cult ure of linking achie v eme nt to reward by refe rring to the charact e r?s co unt ing ability . Beth write s, ?she went up to one hundre d and go t a ster (star) fo r do o ing exce llent wo rk and she g ot the turt le and she was star of the day .? The turt le is the so ft to y which children are able to take ho me with them when they are awarde d star of the day . Explic it com me nt s abo ut the turt le uncov e r a relat io nship betw ee n the childre n and obje c ts within scho o l. Alo ne , a stuffe d toy is reno w ne d fo r its appe al to childre n, cert ainly in weste rn cult ure s; Leh m an, Ho lt z & Aike y (19 95 ) describe attachm e nt which is appare nt fro m an early age in self- soo t hing pro ce sse s. On to p of its natural appe al, the toy in the Schoo l A exam ple has been im bue d with greate r signific anc e thro ugh its delibe rate asso c iat io n with achiev em e nt and the teache r?s pleasure ; achie vem e nt which will m ake the teache r ?very pro ud.? T his indic at e s ho w an achie v eme nt cult ure is suppo rt e d and giv e n ident it y by obje c t s and how obje c ts which are oste nsibly the childre n?s can be appro priate d by adults. Class 3 at Scho o l A does not use sticke rs and do es no t hav e a star of the day . Inste ad the reco gnit io n and reward cult ure is em bo die d in the house po int cup which approac he s reco gnit io n and reward on a com pe t it iv e gro up basis. Achiev ement and goo d behav io ur is rewarde d or poo r behav io ur is punishe d with the risk of eithe r helping or lett ing do wn frie nds in the pursuit of a com mo n go al. This is also an exam ple of ho w cult ure , via the delibe rate fo rm at ion of gro ups, may influe nc e a child?s social inte rac t io n. Take a misbe hav ing class ? sho ut ing will hav e no effe ct , thre at s of lo sing play t im e go unhe ard and po lit e reque sts are sco ffe d by even the mo st mild manne re d of five years but thre at e n to remo v e a ho use po int and sudde nly the only so und to be heard is that of faint, muffle d so bs (Barbut i, 2006 ) . 1 08 Returning to Schoo l B, Figure 3 - 1 0 illust rat es a furt he r exam ple of appro priat io n and ho w the schoo l cult ure may exert itse lf on the phy sic al schoo l, rathe r than the othe r way aro und. The Mushroom Heads , an example of furnit ure , is evide nc e that design is not im m une to being inst ille d with sym bo lism and its use rest ric t e d. In this case a po sit iv e design pro cess carrie d out in pursuit of what might be term e d child - c e nt re d objec t i v e s was ultim at e ly appro priat e d fo r the bene fit of organisat io n, cont ro l and discipline . 3.2.4.2.2 Communication and displays M aria, a Schoo l A turt le , refe rre d to the display of her wo rk in respe c t to feeling go o d at schoo l. Wall display s, as describe d in Chapt e r 2, are a go o d exam ple of ho w the physic al schoo l can b e used to cele brat e and reinfo rc e the cult ure . The Mushroom Heads: The School B mushroom heads were created as part of a design project at the school working collaboratively with the children. In a video exercise Alex reveals the sig nificance of the mushroom heads: ....... and we?ve got mushroom heads, yeah we?ve got mushroom heads. Yes that?s only if they?ve done bad behaviour. These are the mushroom heads for like when you?re doing your shoelaces up or when you?ve been naughty or you need a rest. Figure 3-10 School B mushroom heads - exertion of culture on design 1 09 Typic al ho we ve r of each scho o l being studie d is the use of prim ary - co lo ure d, bo rde re d and back e d display s. These are the tradit io n of English prim ary scho o ls pro pagate d by teache r- t raining and perpe t uat e d by the (teac he r?s) expe ct at io ns of the requirem e nts of Ofst e d, as one teache r rev e ale d in Scho o l B. Alex ande r (20 00 ) no tes the relativ e ly elabo rat e nature of display s in Brit ish and Am eric an schoo ls. There is a co nse nsus of opinion which ident ifies display s as hav ing a po sit ive effe c t on all mem be rs o f the schoo l and Maxw e ll (200 0) and Kille e n et al. (200 3) sugge st an incre ase in mo tiv at io n. Equally howev e r, while the display s pro v ide a prev alent visual im pac t fo r the child, they are generally out of bo unds from the po int of view of to uch and this again is obse rv ably a means of comm unic at io n co nt ro lle d by the teache r . A display of wo rk reflec t s back to the child what is co nside re d to be goo d or what it is abo ut the class? output which amo unt s to achiev eme nt . Fo r the child, as Maxwe ll (200 0 ) stat es, it is expe c te d to inst il pride and a sense of achiev em e nt . The po licy visible in Scho o l B, part ic ularly , is that all childre n?s wo rk is display e d as oppo se d to selec t e d wo rk , the inte nt io n being to pro mo te a sense of comm unal achieve me nt as oppose d to promo t ing indiv iduals at the expe nse of, or fo r the motiv at io n of, othe rs. Whilst the three study schoo ls were very sim ilar in their appro ac h, Alex ande r (20 00 ) highlight s an inte rnat io nal cult ural diffe re nc e . This is clearly evide nt when co nside ring the delibe rat e philo so phy of the Italian Reggio Em ilia scho o ls of orde re d, unclut t e re d display s and the use of subt le co lo urs (D udek , 2000 ) . The Reggio Em ilia philoso phy em brac ing learning, child dev e lo pme nt and the phy sic al env iro nm e nt is incre asingly bei ng used by educat io nalist s and archit e c ts as a benchm ark of qualit y fo r new scho o ls in the UK and many archit ec t s, including Dude k (20 00 ) , suppo rt the ?cle an line ? and orde re d visual im pac t which is charac te rist ic . The study is no t suffic ie nt ly detaile d to make any co nclusio ns abo ut ho w childre n perce iv e orde r versus clut t e r and whet he r an agenda of tidine ss of prese nt atio n also relat e s to socialisat io n. A n alte rnat iv e inte rpre t at io n is that the purpo se of display s may even be mo st ly deco rat iv e and childre n?s wo rk is the mo st free ly av ailable wallpape r. In realit y it is like ly to be a co m binat io n of the two , but im po rt ant ly display s repre se nt ano t he r lay e r of the phy sical scho o l and, unlik e archit e c t ure fo r exam ple , this lay e r is highly manage able fo r the schoo l. Finally , altho ugh Maria ment io ns the im po rt anc e of hav ing her wo rk displaye d, she do es not make any refe re nc e to how it is display e d. This co uld be because it is a sym bo lic act and the im po rtanc e is that it is d eeme d to be go o d. 1 10 3.2.4.2.3 Furniture In bo th scho o ls refe re nce s to furnit ure were very lim ite d. The Turt le childre n referre d dire c t ly to table s and the carpet area (floo r seat ing areas typic ally at the fro nt of the class) as place s which co nt ribut e to a go o d day a t schoo l. It wo uld appe ar that these were include d because the childre n asso c iat e po sit iv e feelings abo ut their learning pro ce ss with the lo cat io n in which it is carrie d out. Refe re nc e to the carpe t may be an indic at io n that the archit e c t ural allo cat io n of space is im po rt ant to childre n, but the study only offe rs the oppo rt unit y fo r speculat iv e inte rpre t at io n. What is clear, ho we ve r, is that there was no sign that the childre n were making aest he t ic or funct io nal judgme nt s abo ut eithe r the carpe t or the clas sroo m table s. Fro m an ergo nom ic perspec t iv e, Bethany at Schoo l S, refe rre d to the discom fo rt of sitt ing fo r to o lo ng. Ho we ve r, as argue d in the light of com me nt s made by the BCSE (20 07 ) , the design of the schoo l chair cann o t be wholly blame d and the organisat io n of the scho o l day must be quest io ne d in paralle l. This direc t ly relat e s to the asse rt io n in Chapt e r 2 that the phy sic al schoo l suppo rt s a cult ure which gene rally prefe rs stat ic childre n. 3.2.4.2.4 Physical spaces Childre n refe rre d to enjo y ing being in part ic ular places. Fo r exam ple , in Schoo l A Ro be rt ment io ns that ?he has had a go o d day at schoo l because he was do ing PE in the play gro und.? Ro be rt ?s com me nt sho w s how a child?s relat io nship with place s and obje ct s is ofte n thr o ugh asso c iat io n. The activ ity and the place are as one because bo th are depe nde nt on the othe r to exist , but the sugge st io n in this study is that the activ it y take s precede nc e . It is po ssible that the lim it ed phy sic al env iro nm e nt at Scho o l A ( See Appe ndix 4 ) inf lue nc e s the child?s sense of well - be ing; the study result s sugge st the im po rt ance of activ it ie s in the classroom over and abo ve activ it ie s else w he re in the scho o l. By co nt rast Schoo l S childre n refe r mo st po sit ive ly to their outdoo r space s and the s pace s which are gree ne st and furt he st away from the classroom . Fo r Schoo l A childre n, altho ugh there is som e ment io n of a spo rt s field else w he re in the village , this is not inte gral to the schoo l and is no t used fo r free and inv est igativ e as oppo se d to fo r m al play in the way the Schoo l S childre n describe . There is also a relat io nship betw ee n available (gre e n) space and the weat he r highlight e d by Schoo l S childre n; the natural elem e nt s were no t describe d by the childre n at Scho o l A. Hav ing grassy areas available fo r play and spo rt as part of the schoo l appe ars to make a perce pt ible differe nc e to childre n?s perce pt io ns of well- be ing; cert ainly (Walte rs & Co he n, 200 3) as part of their exem plar design discuss transfo rm ing the play g ro und into an ?o asis of garde n, seat ing and play areas.? As an intro duc to ry study , it is no t 1 11 possible to be co nclusive but there is som e evide nce that the lim it at io ns of the phy sic al schoo l are also direc t ing the Schoo l A cult ure to wards achiev em ent . 3.2.4.2.5 Safety Re spo nse s of childre n at bo th schoo ls refe r to gett ing hurt and there are some dire c t infe re nc e s in terms of design. BCSE no tes that play gro unds, as well as co rrido rs, are the lo cat ions where accide nt s tend to happe n in schoo l and recomm e nd rubbe rise d su rfac e s to minim ise the dam age and pain (BCSE & Mo rgan Ashurst , 2008 ) . The prev alenc e of co mme nt s in this chapt e r abo ut gett ing hurt indic ate s ho w im po rt ant it is fo r childre n to feel safe but also describe a very phy sic al, so c ial existe nc e . In the case of this thesis the BCSE view po int refe rs to what Chapt e r 1 describe d as the basic s of scho o l design. These are co nside re d vitally im po rt ant to allo w the activ it y which cause s the accide nt s to co nt inue to take place but to melio ra te the effec t s. Reflec t ing a purist perspe c t iv e on child - ce nt red schoo ls, riskie r activ it y , Kytt ? (20 06 ) claim s, sho uld be allow e d to take place . 3.2.4.3 The research process T he childre n?s respo nse s to an equiv ale nt study in two schoo ls were rem ark ably diffe re nt . The overriding co nclusio n of the study is that childre n?s perce pt io n of their own well- be ing is inde e d subje c t ive and highly depende nt on the schoo l cult ure and the c omm unit y in which the schoo l is lo cate d. Howev e r there are a num be r of issue s relat ing to the Good Day Bad Day study which may hav e influe nce d the result s. The yo unge st childre n at each schoo l were perce ive d to be at diffe re nt stage s in their learning dev e lo pme nt and the encourage d metho d of respo nse reflec t e d this. At Schoo l S, draw ing was sugge st e d and the childre n were aske d to anno t ate their draw ings to describe their tho ught pro ce ss. It was clear that many of these annot at io ns were writ te n by the teach e r or learning assist ant in discussio n with the child and there fo re these inte rpre t at io ns were subje c t to a risk of misre pre se nt at io n or coercio n. While the Pandas at Scho o l S were enco urage d to draw , at Schoo l A it was clearly signalle d that writ ing was expe c t e d, determ ine d by the layo ut of the A4 page they were pro v ided. The nece ssary inte rpre t at io n of draw ings co m pare d with the mo re lite ral reading of writ t e n mate rial means that the result s are no t precise ly co m parable . Despite the diffe re nce s in the yo unge r classe s, the prefe rre d metho d of respo nse was co nsist e nt with the older childre n in their respec t ive schoo ls, where by Schoo l S childre n drew and anno tat e d 1 12 and Scho o l A childre n wrote . This sugge st s that rathe r than pure ly refle ct ing the acade m ic stag e which the childre n had reache d, there is also an eleme nt of cult ure influe nc ing the way childre n appro ac h such an exerc ise . Addit io nally , the way in which the study was adm iniste re d was influe nc e d by the usual classro om pract ic e which fo rms part of this cult ure; in othe r words a study to rev e al the effe c t of cult ure was in fact depe nde nt on this cult ure . There fo re the way in which the activ it y was intro duc e d to the class may hav e had a stro ng bearing on the result s of the study at Schoo l A. Dean (200 8) no te s that i t is co mmo n pract ic e fo r teache rs to set up an activ it y by discussing the subje c t with the childre n and clarify ing exact ly what it is that the child is expec t e d to do . The pro ce ss was mo re struc t ure d gene rally in Scho o l A and there is a sugge stio n that , part ic ularly with the Turt le s, the discussio n was well dev e lope d befo re the childre n were left to expand their own ideas. The bene fit of the struc t ure d appro ac h is that the childre n knew exact ly what they were expe c te d to do and a great deal mo re detail and explanat io n was rece iv e d from the childre n in Schoo l A. The downside is that the preparat o ry discussio n can preclude indiv idual tho ught late r on and can lead childre n to wards cert ain subje c t s. The refe re nce s to learning and achiev em ent were surp risingly po larise d acro ss the two scho o ls and it is feasib le that this is part ly the result of the way the study was intro duce d to the childre n. T he abse nce of play and frie nds from the majo rit y of the Turt le s? respo nse s is a like ly outcom e of the class d iscussio n and would cast som e do ubt over its validity as a study . Furt herm ore , the refe re nce s to working at part ic ular tables and on the carpe t by the window wo uld appe ar to have been ideas inculcat e d in the childre n base d on the teache r?s valid asse ssm e nt of the autho r?s wide r rese arc h objec t ive s. The prospe c t that childre n are mere ly reit e rat ing the agenda of the teache r raise s wide r co ncerns abo ut the dev e lo pme nt of indiv idual tho ught and creat iv it y but equally the diffe re nce betw e e n the result s of the writ t e n com pare d with the draw n medium may sugge st that writ ing may be seen as the territo ry of the teache r where as draw ing is no t (Ro binso n, 1994 ) . Mo re ov e r the co nsist e ncy of respo nses betw ee n the two classes in each scho o l i s signific ant . Fo r that reaso n the outco me of the study is co nside re d a fair refle ct io n of childre n within a cult ure rathe r than of the specific appro ac h of one part ic ular teache r. 1 13 3.3 Summary Chapt e r 3 began to intro duc e the tho ught s of childre n to the rese arc h. In a discussio n of what co nst it ut e s a child - c e nt re d schoo l, ev aluat ing childre n?s perspe ct ive s on bo th their own well - be ing and the phy sic al scho o l must be co nside re d obligato ry. Altho ugh retice nt to make outright co nclusio ns fro m the Good Day B ad Day Study , this chapt e r gene rally suppo rt s the predic t io ns of Chapte r 1 and 2 by sugge st ing that , to vary ing degre e s, well- be ing is socially derive d and dire c t e d by cult ure . The study show e d that , despit e diffe re nc e s betw ee n scho o ls, childre n were highly co nsist e nt with the rest of their class and with othe r childre n in their own schools. T he diffe re nc e betwe e n schoo ls was so signific ant that there is a stro ng basis on which t o stre ss the perv asive ne ss of scho o l cult ure on the children?s perce pt io ns of well- be ing. In fact the pro ce ss of the study being dire c t e d by this cult ural influenc e is furt he r evide nce of the cult ural laye ring which the study so ught to rev e al. Even at Sch o o l A in which well- be ing appe ars to be dire c t e d stro ngly to wards achie v em e nt, it is evide nt that this is achie ved thro ugh the social mechanism s of reward and reco gnit io n. By co nt rast , in Scho o l S it is notic e able that the childre n sense their well - be ing i n an explic it ly social way which, altho ugh child - c e nt re d in the sense that it appe ars to be less dete rm ine d by adult s, inv it e s crit ic ism that the childre n?s social env iro nm e nt is mo re discrim inato ry , fract io us and perhaps less inclusiv e; an indic at io n of m ixe d objec t ive s being face d by schoo ls. The two schoo ls there fo re prese nt e d a very diffe re nt cult ural pict ure but it is impo rt ant to ask why this cult ural diffe re nc e exists. Fo llo w ing the introduc t io n of the Natio nal Curric ulum in 198 8 bo th scho o ls are wo rk ing within the sam e fram e wo rk (Ale x ande r, 200 0) and, with its com mo n expe c te d lev e ls of achiev em e nt , this can be large ly discarde d as a facto r. I t is most like ly that the cult ure of the schoo l is in fact deriv e d by the childr e n as a co nse que nce of their so cio - e co nom ic back gro unds, i.e. what co nst it ut e s a child?s well- be ing at scho o l is stro ngly related to the co lle ct ive subje ct iv it y of their fam ily backgro unds. This refle ct s the asse rt io ns of Max - Nee f et al. (198 9) and leads to the obse rv a t io n that , despite the indiv idual perso nalit ie s and philo so phie s of the teache rs, the schoo l as a who le is depe nde nt upo n this co nt e xt , go ing some way to explain the self - perpe t uat ing nature of childre n?s achie vem e nt which Do rling , Vick e rs, Tho mas, Prit c hard & Ballas (20 08 ) hav e fo und within cert ain geo graphic al areas. The advo c at e s of child - c e ntre d schoo ls which fo cus mo re explic it ly upo n the view s of childre n wo uld a sse rt that the schoo l design and operat io n would lo ok quit e diffe re nt from to day and in fact wo uld prom pt transformation ( Burke & Gro sve nor, 20 03 ) . On this basis, with minim al 1 14 refe re nce s to the so cial aspe c t s of learning and sc hoo l at Schoo l A, it co uld be argue d that there is no appare nt reaso n to design coo pe rat iv e learning env iro nm e nts , fo r exam ple , because their part in the well - be ing equat io n wo uld appe ar lim it e d. Rathe r, to enhance well - be ing at Schoo l A, the design sho uld fo cus on suppo rt ing the teache r to delive r the curric ulum and the child to learn succe ssfully within these param et e rs. In fact child - c e nt re d can become teache r - ce nt re d by pro xy and so the feelings of the child, perhaps, are irre lev ant in this co nte x t . The vo ice of the child is nece ssarily supe rse de d by the vo ice of the teache r and the designe r is require d to eithe r acce pt teaching pract ice or design a scho o l which delibe rat e ly challe nge s the teaching metho ds and enfo rce s change , as open plan trie d to do . On the othe r hand, the design of a schoo l base d on the Schoo l S childre n?s expressio ns of well - be ing wo uld lo ok quit e diffe re nt from that of Schoo l A. In fact where as Schoo l A wo uld fo cus on the classroo m/ learning space s, Scho o l S wo uld pro bably not have any . While this might be mo re in - ke e ping with the Danish outdoo r schoo ls, fo r example , which Bent se n et al. (20 09 ) describe as im pac t ing po sit iv e ly on healt h and well- be ing, it is mo st ly indic at iv e of the value able to be place d on academ ic pursuit s in scho o l. If Schoo l S design refle c t s the lo w aspirat io ns of the local com m unity is the schoo l failing tho se childre n by no t enco uraging academ ic achiev em e nt and so cial migrat io n bey o nd the expe rie nc e of their fam ilie s? This refe rs to the exte nt to which manipulat ing a child?s subje c t ive well- be ing thro ugh educat io nal pract ic e , and design, is acce pt able in a child - c e nt re d debat e ; Wilso n (19 76 ) no te s the huge variabilit y of what scho o ls co nsid e r to be child - c e nt red pract ic e . Th is study offe rs evide nce that the desire fo r change in schoo ls base d upo n childre n?s view s is most like ly to perpet uat e the curre nt situat io n in which childre n demo nst rat e signs of being the pro duc t of their scho o ls and o f their com m unit ie s. Qvo rt rup et al. (199 4) argue that ofte n childre n are not co nsult e d because they are co nside re d unre liable witnesse s of their own liv e s and childre n are perhaps no t as free as we wo uld like to think ; th o ught proce sse s and lo gic may be inculc at e d as Vygot sky (197 8 ) pro po s e d. Acco rdingly evide nce of indiv idualit y is fo und only within the co nt e xt of the scho o l?s cult ure and there fo re wo uld appe ar to homo ge nise childre n rath e r than diffe re nt iate them . Addit io nally , whet he r or no t th is study rev e als a true or misle ading po rt rayal of childre n?s well- be ing and offe rs any t hing meaningful for design, it is also ev ide nt that dire c t refe re nc e s to the phy sic al scho o l are lim ite d. Wh ere refere nc es are made , these were no t abo ut archit e c t ure and relat e mo re to aspe ct s which hav e cult ural or so cial signific anc e . In fact it wo uld appe ar that the elem e nt s of the schoo l setting vo lunt ee re d by childre n are tho se which eithe r have , or are 1 15 co nsc io usly giv e n, social and cult ural value , like the class teddy bear or the display of childre n?s wo rk. As such this chapte r has starte d to rev e al the signific anc e of asso c iat io n of place s and things and elem e nt s of the physical schoo l which the schoo l cu lt ure can utilise ; ideas which will be discusse d furt he r in Chapt er 4. Conside ring the range of phy sic al elem e nt s in the scho o l, archite c t ure can be view e d as relat iv e ly infle x ible and its dire c t im pac t mo re diffic ult to melio rat e . Howev e r, when co nside ring mate rials and obje ct s, one can see ho w the cult ure of the schoo l can mo re easily be asse rt e d upo n the design . S ubse que nt chapt ers will discuss the relat io nship betw ee n th is range of eleme nt s exist ing in a schoo l and also expo se the tensio n betwe e n schoo l design and use, a discussio n prev io usly init iat e d in Chapte r 2 . 1 16 Chapter 4: Asking children directly about their physical school environment 4.1 Introduction Chapt e r 3 quest io ne d childre n abo ut their well - be ing by asking them what co nst it ut e s a goo d or a bad day at schoo l. The assert io n of the well- be ing mo de l is that well - be ing is fo rme d thro ugh a repe t it io n of a child?s po sit iv e or negat ive daily expe rienc e s within a so cial co nte x t. The chapte r suppo rt e d the view that the nature of schoo l cult ure and pract ic e signific ant ly dete rm ine s ho w childre n perce iv e their own well- be ing. The thesis also co nt inue s to highlight that , altho ugh a child - c e nt re d schoo l is one fo cuse d on a child?s well - be ing, the exte nt to which well - be ing sho uld be dete rm ine d and dire c ted by the schoo l on the child?s behalf is a moo t po int (Wilso n, 1976 ) . The Go o d Day Bad Day (GDBD ) study did not overt ly quest io n the childre n abo ut the phy sic al schoo l env iro nm e nt , although cert ain infe re nc e s co uld be made . These infe re nce s part ic ularly relat e to the way in which cert ain elem e nt s of the ph y sic al schoo l are appro priate d by the cult ure and giv e n value and meaning in orde r to dire c t children towards achiev eme nt obje c t ive s and behav io ural no rm s ; thus leading to the im po rtant co nside rat io n of use and of association. The chapt e r rev e al e d that ass oc iat io n of the phy sic al env iro nme nt with aspec t s of the schoo l so ciet y and cult ure appe ars to be a signific ant facto r in a child?s relat io nship with inanim at e places and obje c ts. The discussio n so far has expre sse d a lev e l of scept ic ism abo ut the exte nt t o which prim ary scho o l childre n?s opinio ns can realist ic ally co nt ribute to design which is co nside re d transformational ; a view which is linke d to the argum e nt prese nte d in the prev io us chapt e r that childre n?s perspe c t iv e s are lim ite d by the env iro nme nt s in which they find them se lv e s. This bro adly relat e s to Vygot sk y?s (197 8) po sit io n that childre n are induc te d into an exist ing cult ure in which the acquisit io n of language is espe c ially influe nt ial. In this way , the rese arc h pro cess is po te nt ial ly ham pe re d by the exist ing cult ural and phy sic al env ironm e nt and the co nsc io us tho ught s of childre n are ofte n expre ssed in language and lo gic which they are learning from adult s. Gett ing to the child?s vo ice is mo re diffic ult . Despite co nce nt rat ing so far on the influe nc e of cult ure , this chapt e r seeks to begin to unde rst and ho w childre n asse rt them se lv e s with regard to the phy sic al schoo l and how they apply their own perso nal cult ure s. The chapt e r there fo re asks children abo ut fav o urit e and least favo urit e place s or things , aim ing to evaluate the cult ural dire ct io n of well- be ing, the signific anc e of asso c iat io n, 1 17 and the exist e nce of inde pe nde nt childhoo d cult ure s relat e d to the physic al schoo l. This is including and bey o nd archit e c t ure and furnit ure in its sco pe . Th is c hapt e r co nce nt rate s on two studie s inv e st igat ing fav o urit e and least favo urit e places or feat ure s at Scho o l S and Scho o l A. Two diffe ring metho ds were used: a writ t e n and/ o r draw n study fo llow ing the GD BD princ iple and a s tudy at Scho o l A which replic ate d the Care & Chile s? (200 6) balloo ns study , describe d late r. These appro ache s inev it ably pro duc e mo re tangible result s than Chapt e r 3 with typic ally co nsc io us and reaso ne d respo nses. The bene fit of this metho d is that it is alm o st im po ssible to co nclude the studie s witho ut so me perspe c t iv e on the phy sic al schoo l. 4.2 Study 2: Favourite and least favourite place or feature 4.2.1 Methodology T he Favourite and Least Favourite P lace or Feature (FPF) study aske d the children to draw and writ e acco unt s of their favo urit e and least favo urite place s or things in schoo l, carrie d out within the classroo m . The metho d replic at e d the GDBD st udy describe d in Chapte r 3. 4.2.2 Participants T he study was perfo rme d at S choo l S and Schoo l A with all 104 childre n who to ok part in the GDBD study in Chapt e r 3. 4.2.3 Standardised instructions T he study was carrie d out as a classroom activ ity led by the teache r. In Part 1 (Favo urit e Place or Feat ure ), the teache r facilit at e d a discu ssio n abo ut fav o urite place s and feat ure s outside of scho o l, enco uraging the childre n to think why they part icularly like d these . Fo llow ing the intro duc t o ry discussio n the childre n were then aske d to think abo ut their fav o urite place s or things in schoo l and, wo rking individually , to describe them by means of writ ing or draw ing. Mirro ring the GDBD study , neit he r the metho d used no r the balanc e betw ee n writ ing and draw ing was presc ribe d to the teach e r. The childre n were give n a piece of pape r (A4 or A5) and acce ss to no rm al and colo ure d pencils. They were allo w e d appro x im ate ly 20 - 2 5 minute s to com ple te the task. 1 18 Once Part 1 had been comple t e d, a sim ilarly struc t ured discussio n was carrie d out fo r the childre n?s least favo urite place s and feat ure s, fo llo wed b y the sam e amo unt of tim e fo r childre n to com ple te their draw ings or writ ing. 4.2.4 Evaluation and presentation of the results T he output of the co nt e nt analy sis was expe c te dly sim ilar to the GDBD study . Ho we v er, in this case there were two sets of data av ailable . First ly the childre n ident ifie d their favo urit e or least fav o urite place s or feat ures and this info rm at io n was com pile d by rank ing the cho ic e s by cum ulat iv e po pularit y or unpo pularit y . The perce nt age of the total respo nses on which this ranking was base d was also sho w n. Seco ndly , the reaso ns give n by childre n for making their cho ic e s were ranke d in a separat e table . 4.2.5 Findings 4.2.5.1 School S 4.2.5.1.1 Favourite place or feature ?Year 1 & 2 Pandas Figure 4-1 The importance of the outdoors - Shannon O v e r half of the Pandas? respo nse s are relat e d to the outdoo rs. This specific ally relat e s to the play gro und or the foo t ball field and also include s refere nc e s to PE on the field and flo we rs, as describe d by Shanno n in Figure 4 - 1 . The result s are sho w n in Table 4 - 1 . There are som e exam ple s, including the car mat and the do lls, which fo llow gende r stereo t y pe s but do not marke dly influenc e the mo re co nclusiv e result s which are irrespe c t iv e of gende r. 1 19 Eva luat ing the results in Table 4 - 1 against the reaso ns giv e n, offe rs greate r clarit y and insight into the cho ic e s the childre n made . In Table 4 - 2 it can be seen that the unexplained catego ry is the leading reaso n fo r childre n?s cho ice which is ev ide nce that the study , once again, pro duc e d mainly draw n im age s and lim it e d narrat iv e . Ho we ve r, where reaso ns were giv e n the heav y weight ing to wards play and fun fo llow e d by frie nds were evident in Figure 4 - 2 and co nsiste nt with GDBD . Rank % Place/Feature 1 2 6 .1% Play gro und 2 2 1 .7% Fo o t ball field 3 8 .7 % Do lls 4 4 .3 % Lapt o ps Flo we rs Car mat PE on field Classroom Outside Woo de n train Table 4-1 Favourite places or features - School S Year 1 & 2 Rank % Reason 1 3 9% Unex plaine d 2 3 0% Play/ Fun 3 1 3% Frie nds 4 4 % Phy sic al Po sit io ns Achie v eme nt Study / Spo rt Feelings Table 4-2 Reasons for favourite places or features - School S Year 1 & 2 1 20 Figure 4-2 Depiction of friends in the playground - Leisha Jo sh is quit e specific abo ut the frie nds who are inte gral to his enjo ym e nt of his fav o urite place altho ugh he appe ars to link this with the oppo rt unit y fo r com pe t it io n as much as it is link e d to frie ndship. Achie v eme nt and winning are im po rt ant eleme nt s of his comm e nt s: ?P at rick passes the ball and I sco re .? His draw ing, show n in Figure 4 - 3 , part ic ularly demo nst rat e s a perce iv e d com pe t it io n with Adam , p erhaps illust rat ing the basis of his frie ndships and ho w he asso c iat es this with place s. In gene ral, howev e r, the Pandas? refe re nc e s to play and fun do not specify part ic ular frie nds, im ply ing an appare nt ly inclusiv e nature to the class. 1 21 Figure 4-3 Competition and play in Josh's favourite place 4.2.5.1.2 Least favourite place or feature ?Year 1 & 2 Pandas T able 4 - 3 illust rat e s the Pandas? least favo urit e place s and things, re v e aling a part ic ular disinc linat io n to wards the assem bly hall. Rank % Place/Feature 1 3 4 .8% Asse m bly / hall 2 1 3 .0% Fo o t ball field Classroom 4 8 .7 % Dinne r hall 5 4 .3 % Play gro und Role play area Sitting Abilit y gro up sign Smart bo ard Music ro om Table 4-3 Least favourite places or features- School S Year 1 & 2 1 22 Dav id, fo r exam ple , say s that assem bly ?goe s on and on? and, while Lewis sugge sts that ?it?s really ho t and yo u need a drink,? othe r childre n refe r to the discom fo rt of sitt ing fo r a lo ng tim e on the flo o r. Tany a?s draw ing ( Figure 4 - 4 ) succe ssfully sums up all of these sent im e nts, with the im plic at io n that the headt eac he r is the only one enjoy ing the occasio n. Figure 4-4 The assembly hall at School S - Tanya W he re childre n have explaine d their cho ic es, and again many hav e not, the predo m inant reaso n giv e n is no t hav ing fun, or being bo re d, fo llo w e d by a lack of com fo rt . This is show n in Table 4 - 4 . Apar t from Adam ?s comm ent s, who part ic ularly dislikes draw ing in the classroo m because he finds it bo ring, these refe re nc e s were entire ly relat e d to the hall and asse m blies. 1 23 Rank % Reason 1 4 3 .5% Unex plaine d 2 3 0 .4% Play/ Fun 3 8 .7 % Com fo rt / So ft ne ss/W armt h/ Spac e 4 4 .3 % Quie t /Calm Study / Spo rt Quiet areas Peo ple /Be hav io ur Table 4-4 Reasons for least favourite places or features - School S Year 1 & 2 Figure 4-5 Homework and ability group signs Figure 4 - 5 also no te s som e of the mo re negat iv e response s of the class relat ing to schoo l wo rk. It is rele v ant to note that cert ain childre n hav e also refe rre d to the play gro und and mo re specific ally th e foo t ball field as their least favo urit e place s, indic at ing from the po int of view of inclusio n, that howev e r emphat ic the result s at an indiv idual leve l there is not alway s a co nse nsus. 1 24 4.2.5.1.3 Favourite place or feature ?Year 5 Barracudas Figure 4-6 The outdoors ? The Barracudas at School S O v e r 70% of the B arrac udas? respo nse s relate to being outdo o rs ( Table 4 - 5 ), either on the field or in the play gro und and the reaso ns giv e n are gene rally linke d to play and fun. (See Figure 4 - 6 ). Ben?s outloo k epi to m ise s the straight fo rw ard view that many of the Barrac udas expre ss: ?I like the play gro und so I can talk and play game s.? Ro sie refe rs to mo o d by com me nt ing that ?the re are lots of places to be calm and you can sit do wn any w he re .? Rank % Place/Feature 1 4 3 .6% Fo o t ball field 2 1 7 .9% Play gro und 3 1 2 .8% Outside 4 5 .1 % Classroom Library Den Equipm e nt shed 8 2 .6 % Art cabine t Hexago n table Table 4-5 Favourite places or features - School S Year 5 1 25 Despite the overall clarity of respo nse s there is a small pro po rt io n of the class who have indic ate d the classroo m and the library as their fav o urit e place s ment io ning learning and reading as reaso ns. The reaso ns are sho w n in Table 4 - 6 . Rank % Reason 1 2 8% Play/ Fun 2 1 5% Study / Spo rt 3 1 3% Frie nds 4 8 % Quie t /Calm Com fo rt / So ft ne ss/W armt h/ Spac e Learning/ Re ading 7 5 % Achie v eme nt Natural Elem e nt s 9 3 % Free dom/ Rule s/ D isc ipline Conve rsat io n Feelings Table 4-6 Reasons for favourite places or features - School S Year 5 M at t he w specific ally ment io ns the hexago n table and pert ine nt ly he describe s it as som ew he re to play aro und, indic at ing that obje c t s change the use of the space in which they are lo cat e d. 4.2.5.1.4 Least favourite place or feature ?Year 5 Barracudas Co nside ring their least fav ourit e place s and things, Table 4 - 7 sho w s the Barrac udas to demo nst rate a react io n to autho rity and expre ss a dislik e of perce ive d so urc e s of co nst raints and bo re dom in schoo l. The reaso ns illust rat e d in Table 4 - 8 suppo rt this finding. The place most com mo nly referre d to as least fav o urite is the headt e ac he r?s, offic e . Gene rally childre n?s com me nt s relate to no t liking bei ng to ld off. Ricky ?s draw ing show n in Figure 4 - 7 clearly illust rat es ho w he perce ive s the headt e ac he r. ?My least f av o urite place is Mr S?s offic e because I?m in there to (o ) much.? And Bethany say s ?mo st of the tim e yo u are gett ing tule d (to ld) off.? 1 26 Rank % Place/Feature 1 3 8 .5% Headt e ac he r 's offic e 2 2 6 .9% Library 3 1 1 .5% Gate 4 7 .7 % Play gro und Music ro om 6 3 .8 % Assem bly / hall Classroom Table 4-7 Least favourite places or features - School S Year 5 Rank % Reason 1 2 6 .9% Play/ Fun Freedom/ Rule s/ D isc ipline 3 1 1 .5% Unex plaine d 4 7 .7 % Feelings Desire to be Elsew he re 6 3 .8 % Com fo rt / So ft ne ss/W armt h/ Spac e Learning/ Re ading Conve rsat io n Peo ple /Be hav io ur Hygie ne /Cle anline ss/ O rde r Table 4-8 Reasons for least favourite places or features - School S Year 5 1 27 Figure 4-7 Portrayal of the headteacher's office - School S T he seco nd le ast favo urit e place or feat ure is the library , illust rat e d in Figure 4 - 8 . Ro sie say s, ?the re isn?t that much to do in there apart fro m read which I hate .? Sally , one of the mo st able childre n acco rding to the class teache r, say s ?my least fav o urite place is the library because I find it bo ring and dull and som et im e s dark.? Here funct io n and aest he t ic s appe ar to com po und n egat iv e feelings to wards learning. Ethan, on the othe r hand disagre e s. Figure 4-8 The library at School S 1 28 4.2.5.2 School A 4.2.5.2.1 Favourite place or feature ?Year 1 & 2 Turtles Rank % Place/Feature 1 3 1 .6% Play gro und 2 1 0 .5% Markings Play garde n Classroom Toy shed 6 7 .9 % Building site 7 5 .3 % Step Book co rne r Star of the Day sign 10 2 .6 % Headt e ac he r 's offic e Table 4-9 Favourite places or features - School A Year 1 & 2 Unli k e the Turt le s? respo nse s to the GDBD study , the enquiry into childre n?s favourit e place s and feat ure s, show n in Table 4 - 9 rev e als a m ore play ful aspe c t to the class. In fact play , fun and frie nds are reve ale d to be the mo st signific ant reaso ns fo r childre n choo sing their favo urit e place s which predom inant ly com prise outdoo r space s ( Table 4 - 10 ) . This is in dire ct co nt rast with the find ings of Chapt e r 3. Rank % Reason 1 2 6% Play/ Fun 2 1 3% Frie nds 3 1 1% Co lo ur/P at te rns/ Visual 4 8 % Achie v eme nt 5 5 % Quie t /Calm Sto rage/ E quipme nt Study / Spo rt Table 4-10 Reasons for favourite places or features - School A Year 1 & 2 1 29 One part ic ular aspe c t warrant ing its own heading is the play gro und markings which were very pro m ine nt in the Turt le s? res po nses, pic t ure d in Figure 4 - 9 and Figure 4 - 10 . Th e lev e l of detail exhibit e d in the draw ings indic at e d an intim ate kno w le dge and inte rac t ive relat io nship with these feat ure s of the play gro und, co nt ribut ing to their sense of enjoy me nt and creat io n of gam e s. Figure 4-9 Playground markings - School A Ale x ia talks abo ut the circles on the play gro und and ment io ns co lo ur, play and fun. Cam e ro n, refe rring to the com pass, describe s play ing foo t ball on it. There appe ars to be a lev e l of inte rpre t at io n and creat iv ity applie d to som e of these sim ple addit io ns. Addit io nally , a some w hat accide nt al feat ure is describe d by Jam e s who highlight s the step by the schoo l offic e which he and Alex use as a base and inv ent gam es invo lv ing diffe re nt part s of the maso nry . This can be co nside re d part of the invisible scho o l, or at least inv isible to adult s, and which seem s to be a crit ic al so urce of imaginat io n and creat io n fo r som e . Jam e s was not the only one who cho se the step which sugge st s that perhaps it has a mo re signific ant ro le in the child?s wo rld beyo nd its funct io n. This feat ure is discusse d furt he r in Chapt er 6. 1 30 Figure 4-10 Playground markings - the compass - School A T w o of the bo ys ment io n things which they like to lo ok at, including Oliv e r who like s to loo k at the curt ains and Dav id who like s to lo ok at the star of the day sign. The curt ains may be stim ulat ing, they may be relax ing or they may sust ain day dre am ing. Fo r Dav id, supe rfic ially it co uld be r easo n e d that loo k ing at the star of the day sign is relat e d to the award of the acco lade but also , as the acknow le dge d artist in the class, the turt le may be a visually pleasing fo rm fo r him . It do es, ho wev e r, indic at e the im po rt ance of image ry in the overall mate rial schoo l. Despite the ev ide nt shift away from learning in this study , the classro om rem ains a favo urite place fo r som e . Charle s make s refe re nc e to age and learning when he choo ses the Turt le s classroom as his favo urit e place . He say s ?I like do in hrd wrc (wo rk ) be co uase we are olde r.? Perhaps this is a reit e rat io n of a teache r?s explanat io n of why the childre n are no t able to play as ofte n as they used to . 4.2.5.2.2 Least favourite place or feature ?Year 1 & 2 Turtles T able 4 - 1 1 rev e als that the least favo urit e place acco rding to the Turt le s is the staffro om . Gabrie l explains that he do es no t like whit e and he also think s the building is dirt y and boring. Sam ant ha dislik e s wo rk ing in the staffro om because the chairs are to o high, which is pro bably the pro duc t of lim it e d oppo rt unit ie s fo r no n - c lassro om learning space . The staffro om is a pro m ine nt building which sits in and ov erlo ok s the area of play g ro und in which many of these childre n play . 1 31 More predict ably the bins and the to ile ts are no t po pular with the Turt le s. It is no t surprising there fo re that Table 4 - 12 sho w s that over a quart e r of the reaso ns giv e n fo r least fav o urite place s are to do with hygie ne , cleanline ss and orde r. In part ic ular, the words which the childre n use ofte n refe r to sm ell, indic ating their senso ry relat io nship with the p hy sic al schoo l. Rank % Place/Feature 1 2 0 .7% Staffroo m 2 1 7 .2% Bins 3 1 3 .8% To ilet Table s 5 6 .9 % Play gro und Friendship bench Carpe t Class 3 9 3 .4 % Building site Headt e ac he r?s offic e Table 4-11 Least favourite places or features - School A Year 1 & 2 Rank % Reason 1 2 5 .8% Hygie ne /Cle anline ss/ O rde r 2 1 6 .1% Learning/ Re ading 3 1 2 .9% Furnit ure & Furnishings 4 9 .7 % Quie t /Calm 5 6 .5 % Com fo rt / So ft ne ss/W armt h/ Spac e Freedom/ Rule s/ D isc ipline Peo ple /Be hav io ur 8 3 .2 % Co lo ur/P at te rns/ Visual Play/ Fun Safe Stim ulat io n/ Im aginat io n Table 4-12 Reasons for least favourite places or features - School A Year 1 & 2 1 32 Illust rat e d in Figure 4 - 11 , Danie l refe rs to asso c iat ing the table s with hard wo rk which he does not like do ing and their occasional dirt ine ss do es no t im pro ve things fo r him . Howev er, Danie l do es no t ment io n the design of the table s or whet he r they are co m fo rtable or unco m fo rt able to wo rk at and it appe ars to be mo re to do with asso c iat io n. Alex agree s with him . Figure 4-11 Least favourite place or feature - classroom tables - School A Year 1 & 2 T he headte ac he r?s offic e ( Figure 4 - 12 ) appe ars in the list , as it did at Schoo l S, and the frie ndship bench which is self - ex planat o ry in its sym bo lism is also ment io ne d as a least favo urit e place altho ugh the reaso ns give n are no t clear. This will be returne d to in Chapte r 5. Figure 4-12 Headteacher's office at School A 1 33 4.2.5.2.3 Favourite place or feature ?Year 5 & 6 Class 3 Rank % Place/Feature 1 5 2 .6% Play gro und 2 1 6 .7% Classroom 3 1 0 .3% Frie ndship bench 4 7 .7 % Spo rt s field 5 5 .1 % Markings 6 2 .6 % Shed Badm into n 8 1 .3 % Head teache r 's offic e Com put e r 10 0 .0 % Step Table 4-13 Favourite places or features - School A Year 5 & 6 O v e r half of t he childre n in Class 3 indic at e that the play gro und is their fav o urit e place to be, with ano t he r large pro po rt io n talk ing specific ally abo ut feat ure s of the play gro und like the frie ndship bench and floo r mark ings (See Table 4 - 1 3 ) . This is co nsist e nt with the yo unge r class and the draw ings rev e al a sim ilar lev e l of fam iliarity . Unsurprisingly , in Table 4 - 14 , the main reaso ns giv e n are abo ut play and fun share d with frie nds. Harry ?s explanat io n show n in Figure 4 - 13 suppo rt s this idea. In addit io n Laure n ment io ns the im po rt anc e of natural eleme nt s by sugge st ing that ?I can play with my frie nds and get so me fresh air.? Nick also dem o nst rat es that there is a rota fo r fo ot ball which is a way of man aging the lim it e d space available but he seem s com fo rt able with this arrange m e nt . ?We play foo tball at play t ime if it is are (o ur) turn on the rota. If no t we can just hang aro und.? 1 34 Rank % Reasons 1 2 4% Play/ Fun Friends 3 1 5% Study / Spo rt 4 5 % Com fo rt / So ft ne ss/W armt h/ Spac e Learning/ Re ading 6 4 % Quie t /Calm Sto rage Equipm e nt Quiet Areas 9 3 % Relat io nships with Adult s Freedom/ Rule s/ D isc ipline Natural Elem e nt s Table 4-14 Reasons for favourite places or features - School A Year 5 & 6 Figure 4-13 Straightforward rationale for choosing the playground - Harry 1 35 The frie ndship bench appears highly in this study fo r Class 3 altho ugh it only appe are d in the list of least fav o urit e feat ure s fo r the Turt le s. This sugge sts that there co uld be a territ o rial elem e nt to its use, being the dom ain of the olde r childre n. Equ ally the step appe ars in the list of favo urit e place s which it did fo r the Turt le s but no t quit e so evide nt ly in this case . Altho ugh bo th po pular this may also im ply age - re lat e d territo ry . The GDBD portray e d a co nne c t io n betwe e n childre n?s well - be ing and learning and teache rs, which is endo rse d here by the po pularity of the classro om and Melanie ?s depict io n of this in Figure 4 - 14 . Figure 4-14 The teacher in the classroom - Melanie K at y explains that ?the classro om is my favo urit e place because it allw ays feels like the sun is shing (shining) and Mrs Kissic k is relly kind!? Melanie reaso ns that ?I lov e lea rning and also I feel safe .? While these girls sugge st po sit iv e relat io nships within the classroo m, Lewis on the othe r hand indic at e s a less so cial favo urit e feat ure which is also within the classroom . He likes ?surfing the net,? on the com pute r ( Figure 4 - 1 5 ) . 1 36 Figure 4-15 The classroom computer - Lewis Finally a small num be r of co mme nt s match those of Kiere n in Scho o l S; Pete r?s fav o urite feat ure is the gate because , he explains, ?whe n I see (it I) think of ho me .? 4.2.5.2.4 Least favourite place or feature ?Year 5 & 6 Class 3 Figure 4-16 The toilets at School A S ho w n in Table 4 - 1 5 and illust rat e d in Figure 4 - 16 , the childre n?s dislik e of the to ile t s is em phat ic and hygie ne and cleanline ss is the main reaso n give n; ?it sm ells, it?s dirty and people put poo on 1 37 the wall and wee on the floo r.? This is a comm o n response of those illust rat e d in Table 4 - 1 6 from bo y s and girls and it appe ars that the to ilet s? unple asant smell is a part ic ular pro ble m . Rank % Place/Feature 1 6 5 .1% To ilet 2 1 1 .6% Clo ak roo m 3 7 .0 % Play gro und 4 4 .7 % Kitche n Headt e ac he r?s offic e 6 2 .3 % Equipm e nt c upbo ard Walk - in cupbo ard Gate Table 4-15 Least favourite places or features - School A Year 5 & 6 Rank % Reason 1 4 6 .5% Hygie ne /Cle anline ss/ O rde r 2 2 0 .9% Peo ple /Be hav io ur 3 7 .0 % Com fo rt / So ft ne ss/W armt h/ Spac e 4 4 .7 % Co lo ur/P at te rns/ Visual Safet y Freedom/ Rule s/ D isc ipline 7 2 .3 % Frie nds Furnit ure & furnishings Feelings Desire to be elsew he re Table 4-16 Reasons for least favourite places or features - School A Year 5 & 6 T he clo ak ro om is also indicat e d and the reaso ns giv e n include cro w de dne ss and untidine ss. 1 38 Figure 4-17 Unhappiness in the playground - School A W he re as mo st childre n?s fav o urite place was the play gro und, this is no t the case fo r all childre n. Melanie do es not enjo y being in the play gro und. She say s that ?I do n?t feel safe an d everyo ne is ho rrible .? Her draw ing ( Figure 4 - 1 7 ) tells the sto ry and allude s to the seco nd mo st comm o n reaso n fo r cho osing a least fav o urit e place or feat ure which is to do with othe r childre n and their behav io ur. 4.2.6 Discussion 4.2.6.1 The outdoors T he childre n in bo th schoo ls hav e em phat ic ally dem o nst rat e d the im po rt anc e of the outdo o rs to their co nsc io us tho ught s of well - be ing. Kytt? (200 6 ) , inv e st igat ing the relat io nship betwe e n childre n and outdo o r space, refe rs to a bo dy of work which maint ains that free, spo nt aneo us outdoo r play promo te s moto r and so cial deve lo pm e nt and healt h. This unde rst anding is reco gnise d by the Go ve rnme nt , do cume nt ing the pro spec t of phy sical expre ssio n and study affo rde d by outdoo r space s and their co nt ribut io n to health and go o d behav io ur (D fES, 2007 ) . Howe ve r, even with the opport unit ie s prese nt e d by the curre nt replac em e nt of schoo ls, there is crit ic ism that full advant age is no t being take n (Beard, 2005 ) to fulfil the pote nt ial described by Kytt ? (20 06 ) . 1 39 Fro m the po int of view of play , CABE (20 02 ) pro po se s that well designe d play gro unds will reduc e the need fo r supe rv isio n . Cert ainly less harsh surfac ing wo uld assist tho se childre n who are co nce rne d abo ut falling and hurt ing them se lve s but the othe r aspec t of visibilit y is perhaps misle ading. Base d on obse rv at io ns bey o nd the study scho o ls it is unusual t o find play gro unds which are no t highly visible, em pt y , flat space s. Ho wev e r, a clear shift in em p hasis to co nside r the outdo o r space as part of the informal curriculum is evide nt in the design brie fs (DfES, 2003 b) but, as Chapte r 2 ident ified, this is an exam ple of design catching up with ideas which had no t been establis he d in previo us schoo lbuilding cycle s. There is also an inhe re nt risk of appro priat ing the play gro und and fields, espec ially co nside ring that many of the reaso ns the childre n gave were to do with negat iv e feelings towards rule s and a curt ailme nt of free do m . With goo d inte nt io ns the co nt riv e d struc t uring of space fo r the purpo se of attainme nt may ultim ate ly adv e rse ly affe c t the child?s well- be ing. 4.2.6.2 The library T he many refe re nc e s to the library at Scho o l S are an appro priat e exam ple of how cult ure com bine s with archite c t ure, in this case negat ive ly . While in a less academ ic culture , one might expe c t the library to be less po pular, there is a sugge st io n that its lo cat io n and deme ano ur com po und its unpo pularit y. Its lo cat io n, set aside from the rest of the sch o o l, fo rmalise s reading. In Scho o l A and Scho o l B the library is an inte gral part of the main co rrido r. K eeping bo oks in the co rrido r perhaps signifie s that reading is visible and acce ssible and an esse nt ial part of the every day activ it y of the schoo l. Ho w ev e r, in Schoo l B in Birm ingham it is clear that the co rrido r affo rds lim it e d optio ns fo r enjo y ing the bo oks and fo rm alise s the pro ce ss of choo sing a bo ok and taking it else w he re to read. Scho o l S expe rie nc es the sam e issue . Addit io nally it is po ssi ble tha t Sally wo uld prefe r the library if it was less dark or mo re cent ral to the schoo l. Pote nt ially its lack of appeal has a lo nge r term effe c t on the po pularit y of reading but it is uncle ar from the rese arc h ho w much is to do with lo cat io n and design and how much relate s to schoo l cult ure , the qualit y of the bo ok s or the attit ude of the pare nts to reading, fo r exam ple . The majo rit y of curre nt designs prese nt s an inte grate d rathe r than a separat e library ; Schoo l B indic at e s a cert ain pro ce ss and co nt ro l which is relat ed to the im prov ise d use of lim it e d space . 1 40 Loo king clo se r, the boo ks also typic ally indic at e achieve me nt lev e l with co lo ure d stick e rs and the orde ring of the boo ks in fo lde rs feasibly asso c iate s reading first ly with abilit y and only seco ndly with enjo ym e nt . This enjoym e nt may be deriv e d, as a result , from co m pariso n with othe rs and, striv ing fo r a child - c e nt re d schoo l, putt ing achie ve ment in fro nt of enjoym e nt is co unt e r - pro duc t ive base d on the earlie r discussio n of the well- be ing mo de l. In the cur re nt scenario co nt ro lling the reading proce ss unne ce ssarily preclude s the child taking respo nsibilit y for their reading and po te nt ially beco me s perce iv e d as the teache r?s agenda. Scho o l A by co nt rast sho e ho rns a library into a very lim it e d co rrido r space o ppo sit e the much lo at he d to ile t s, with a great oppo rt unit y fo r negat iv e asso c iat io ns with reading. Base d on obse rv at io ns in the study scho o ls the boo k remains a fundam e nt al mate rial objec t in scho o l, perhaps with the two even pro v ing histo ric ally syno nym o u s. It is ev ide nt that reading is becom ing less and less pape r - base d but quest io ning the im po rt anc e of boo ks and librarie s opens up a bro ade r techno lo gic al debat e abo ut the tangible schoo l versus the virt ual schoo l. The quest io n seem s to revo lve aro und an enquiry of wo rt h attac he d to phy sic al mate rial and the im po rt anc e of hapt ic sense. Does the child hav ing the phy sic al boo k in hand add a perce iv e d value to or even assist a child?s reading? Co nv e rse ly, does ho lding an old bo ok which has seen bette r day s de v alue this pro ce ss? Ho w im po rt ant is it fo r a child to to uch, feel the words and run a finge r acro ss the pict ure s? Go ri, Del Viv a, Sandini & Burr (20 08 ) make it clear that the inte grat io n and coo rdinat io n of to uch and sight do es no t typic ally occur befo re the age of eight . This sugge st s that bo th sense s need to be utilise d in orde r fo r the child to expe rie nt ially develo p this inte grat io n and dist inc t io n. In a study of five year old childre n?s reading pro gre ss Bara, Gent az, Co l? & Spre nge r - Charo lle s (20 04 ) illust rat e d that tho se using their finge rs to unde rst and the shape of the lett e rs, alo ngside visual inte rpre t at io n, made signific ant ly mo re pro gre ss. In many respec t s, these quest io ns are cent ral to a discussio n abo ut the mate rial scho o l and how it co nt ribut es to a child?s well - be ing. Stim ulat io n of the sense s is cent ral to the well - be ing mo de l yet, as Chapte r 2 po int s out , the senso ry co ntribut io n of to day ?s scho o ls is gene rally lim it e d. The obse rv at io ns abo ut reading overall sugge st that a primary scho o l child?s sense s are some w hat blurre d, altho ugh acute , and there fo re the mate rial fabric of the schoo l can be used to aid such dev e lo pme nt . 1 41 4.2.6.3 Toilets In Care & Chile s (20 06 ) it is asse rt e d that ?it is diffic ult to overco me the noto rie t y of scho o l to ile t s. They are renow ne d pro blem areas in mo st schoo ls; perce iv e d as areas of misbehav io ur, they are diffic ult to maint ain and gene rally unple asant (p.57 ) .? They maint ain that mo st childre n?s least fav o urite place is the to ilets, an asse rt io n which is co nsist e nt with the result s at Scho o l A. The acco unt s of Care & Chile s (2 00 6 ) and Burk e & Gro sv e nor (200 3 ) leav e no do ubt as to childre n?s typical negat iv ity towards schoo l to ile t facilit ie s. The Schoo l A result s em phat ic ally subst ant iat e this view . Howe ve r, what is inte re st ing is that th ere is no ment io n of to ilet s, eithe r po sit ive or negat iv e, fro m the Schoo l S childre n. This may be a facto r of cleanline ss. Howev e r, it is like ly to be signific ant that in Scho o l S there are separat e to ilet s fo r the infant s and the junio rs where as in Schoo l A to ile t s are share d. 4.2.6.4 Territory T he results of the favo urite place study hint e d at territo ry , part ic ularly at Schoo l A with a sugge st io n that territo ry is base d on age and gende r. The accusat io n dire c te d at teache rs citing territo rial behav io ur (Benne t t & Hyland, 1979 ) as a reaso n why open plan faile d indic at e s that territo rie s in schoo l may be signific ant in the cult ure and relat ing to a child?s well - be ing. Relph (19 76 ) ident ifie s an inhe re nt hum an need fo r asso c iat io n with signific ant place s in which the need ofte n manife sts itse lf in territo rial behav io ur. Equally Sack (198 6 ) explains that territo ry is co nside re d to be fundame nt al in the organisat io n of hum an life and Altm an & Chem e rs (198 4 , p.4 ) claim territo rie s ?perm it peo ple to surv ive phy sically and psy cho lo gic ally and to co nduc t life?s funct io ns in an orde rly and syst em at ic way .? Acco rding to Kint re a, Bannist e r, Picke ring, Reid & Suzuk i (20 08 , p.4 ) , terr ito rial behav io ur is abo ut co nt ro l ?claim e d by one group over a define d geo graphic al area,? which is perce ive d to have value . Altm an & Chem e rs (198 4 ) suppo rt the gene ral im po rt anc e of asso c iat io n by stre ssing that value is mo re to do with the reso urc e s co nt aine d within as oppo se d to the territo rie s them se lv e s. As a co nse que nce of such perceiv e d value , Kint re a et al. (20 08 ) ident ify the result ing defe nc e of territo ry which emerge s when co nt ro l is challe nge d. They refe r to super place attachment which this study has also indic at ed fo r childre n . Territo ry operat e s at many diffe re nt lev e ls of hum an organisat io n. Where as, the inte re sts of Kint re a et al. (20 08 ) lie in the negat iv e , and ofte n crim inal, expre ssio n of territorial behav io ur in 1 42 yout h, Altm an & Chem e rs (198 4 ) describe the typic al and gene rally inno c uo us dem o nst rat io n of territo ry which a yo ung child expe rie nce s. They discuss childre n?s territo rialit y beginning at ho me as the clearly mark e d priv at e territo ry of their fam ily . Within the hom e Altm an & Cheme rs (19 84 ) po int out that there will be furt he r dem arc at io n of territ o rie s, including, fo r example the bedro om s of the pare nt s or olde r siblings. These will be co nt ro lle d as part of the organ isat io n of the hom e and, within this do me st ic co nt e xt , defe nded. Altm an & Chem e rs (198 4 ) specify two purpo se s of territ o rial behav io ur rele v ant to the well- be ing mo de l and its relat io nship with phy sic al spaces: ident it y managem e nt and the regulat io n of so cial pro ce sse s including acce ss to reso urc e s. These are seen as linke d ?... since they both deal with co nt ro l of acce ss to the self and to things relate d to the self (p.1 37 ) . ? Sim ilarly Kint re a et al. (2008 ) explain the mo tiv at io n to u se space in a way that develo ps ident ity and relat io nships and describe the pursuit of reco gnit io n and respe c t amo ng peers. At this stage territo ry wo uld app e ar to be highly relevant , part ic ularly in an archit e c t ural discussio n of open or clo sed space s. This relate s to place s and feat ure s which can be used in schoo l by childre n to maintain or manage their so cial ident it ie s, influe nc ing lo nger term perso nal ide nt it y; the mask and the face as Cochran (19 82 ) describe d ( Chapt e r 6 co nside r s this furt he r ) . 4.2.6.5 Colour ?T he fro ot bo x because it is bo ring and has no co lo ur.? Dav id, from the Turt le s is a rare exam ple of a child who ment io ne d co lo ur thro ugho ut these studie s. It is no te d that peo ple are ofte n vo cife ro us abo ut the effec t of co lo ur despite a co nt radic t o ry rese arc h base (Sundst rom , 198 7 ) . Signific ant ly in Dav id?s comm e nt s he refe rs to a lack of co lo ur rathe r than part ic ular co lo urs he wo uld like . Appe ndix 7 prov ide s the result s of an exerc ise with the sam e 104 childre n ident ify ing their favo urite co lo urs and sugge st ing cult ural influe nce to wards mo re stere ot y pic al cho ice s of blue s and pink s. Maxwe ll (200 0) claim s the signific anc e of co lo ur to childre n and (Burk e & Gro sv eno r, 200 3 , pp.2 8 - 2 9 ) maintains that co lo ur fe at ure s prom ine nt ly in childre n?s tho ught s of their scho o l env iro nme nt . Fo r exam ple , ?I think the scho o l is really drab and ugly and I wo uld like it to be nice and co lo urful and clean (Lisa, 13, Glasgow ) ? and ?I feel very stro ngly abo ut the co lo ur of the wa lls of the classroom s because all the walls are white and they make yo u feel co ld (Yusuf, 10, Cardiff) . ? 1 43 Enge lbre c ht (2003 , p.2 ) ackno w le dges ? the am azing powe r of co lo r on hum ans and its abilit y to enhanc e our expe ri e nc e of the learning env iro nm e nt ,? and no te s the link betw ee n co lo ur and alert ne ss and moo d, mental clarit y and energy . Hav ing argue d the im po rt anc e of co lo ur, Enge lbre c ht (200 3 , p.1 ) co ncurre nt ly maint ains that ?f rom psycho lo gic al react ions to learne d cult ural inte rpre t at io ns, hum an react io n and relat io nship to co lo r is riddle [sic] with co m ple x it ie s,? which naturally leads to an inco nsist e nt rese arc h base . Fo r exam ple , the rese arc h of Rade lo ff (19 90 ) and of Ou, Luo , W o o dco ck & Wright (20 04 ) demo nst rate s a dire c t co ntradic t io n in gende r prefe renc e to scho o l co lo ur. Meanw hile , Higgins et al. (2005 ) describe am biguit y in the rese arc h on pink with Ham id & Newpo rt (198 9 ) maintaining that childre n in a pink ro om sho we d mo re stre ngt h and bett e r moo d than childre n in a blue roo m , seem ing ly at odds with Schauss? (19 85 ) rese arc h which asse rt s pink as energy sapping. Mahnk e (19 96 ) is very specific in his recomm e ndat io ns fo r schoo ls: warm bright co lo urs for expre ssio n in prim ary schoo ls, coo l co lo urs to aid co nce nt rat io n in seco ndary scho o ls, a range of co lo urs in hallw ay s to offe r perso nality . B ase d on the findings to date this can be inte rpre t e d in the sam e way as the class masco t discusse d in Chapte r 3; c o lo ur is applie d to pro mo te desire d behav io ur. While the study schoo ls are typically ado rne d with mo re uncoo rdinat e d co lo ur, by co m pariso n the Reggio Em ilia appro ac h to co lo ur is much mo re subdue d, favo uring subt le , natural shade s; a gene ral philo so phy incre asingly laude d as a mo de l fo r prim ary env iro n m e nt s (Dude k , 200 0 ) . In a sim ilar way to Steine r, Reggio Em ilia delibe rat e ly choo se s natural mate rials and, in this respe c t , the design optio ns have not been mult iplie d to the sam e degre e by techno lo gy . It is possi ble that tech nique s fo r mass pro duc t io n of co lo ur have dev alue d co lo ur leading to the need fo r brighte r and bright e r co lo urs in scho o ls in orde r to hav e an impac t . This relat e s to Saint ?s (198 7) co mme nt that ?t o day , a bo ld splash of co lo ur is devo id of meaning. Fo rt y years ago it co uld stand fo r ho pe and half fo rgot t e n gaie ty (p.9 0 ) .? A pract ic al, funct io nal view is describe d by Laris (2005) which is irre spe ct ive of colo ur cho ic e and specific co lo ur im pac t . Laris (20 05 , p.27 ) describe s the co nse que nc e of using a varie t y of co lo urs in the rule s of childre n?s play: It is com mo n that gro ups of childre n will agre e on a rule where a co lo ur is a key fact o r, inde e d a cataly st in their gam e . Fo r exam ple they will say , ?let ?s clim b thro ugh the ro pe s, 1 44 but this tim e , no to uching the gree n ones?. The co lo ur variat io n affec t s the patt e rn of use in a way that enco urage s decisio n and rule co dific at io n. Laris? (200 5) tho ught s wo uld appe ar to be mo st co nsist e nt with childre n?s respo nse s in this and furt he r studie s of this thesis and warn against placing too much im po rt anc e on the specific s of co lo u r in scho o l design. 4.2.6.6 The process T his was a gro up study and there is ev ide nc e that the childre n used each othe r?s ideas and the class discussio n to fo rm their own ideas. This wo uld part ly explain the co nse nsus reache d. There is also an indic at io n that the p ursuit of lo gic al tho ught on the part of the teache r, enco uraging the child to explain their ideas thro ugh the writ ing pro ce ss, do es not rev e al as much abo ut the child?s think ing as the draw ing (Robinso n, 1994 ) . The study allo we d childre n to influe nce each othe r and it is notic e able that there is som e recipro c ity of respo nse s indic at ing that so cial relat io nships hav e a bearing on ho w childre n expre ss prefe re nc e fo r space and things. Fo r inst ance Ro be rt like s the builde rs? yard but Maria does not. Their relat io nship is no t clo se as the so cial netw o rk analy sis rev e als in Chapte r 5; react iv e respo nse s to phy sic al feat ure s base d on indiv idual and gro up ident ific at io n are discusse d in Chapt e r 6. GDBD on the who le pro duce d infe re nce s to the phy sical schoo l where as the Favourite Place or Feature study fo rce d the childre n to co nside r their env iro nm e nt . Inte rpre t at io n is no t always straight fo rw ard. Fo r exam ple Ruth?s rem ark s abo ut banging her head on the abilit y gro up signs abo v e the ta ble s may well be an uncom plic at e d com me nt abo ut the pract ic alit y of the signs. Howe ve r, it is may be tem pt ing fo r a researc he r to searc h fo r deepe r meaning and treat Ruth?s co mme nt s as co nsc io us or unco nsc io us crit ic ism of abilit y gro ups. Film ing which was carrie d out as a supplem e nt ary study with the childre n capt ure d Tany a kno ck ing her head on the sign whilst in co nve rsat io n with Natalia, sugge st ing that it is a respo nse to the funct io nalit y of the env iro nm e nt and perhaps no thing mo re . 4.2.7 Review T he discus sio n in Chapt er 3 quest io ne d the validity of the Turt le s? respo nse s to the GDBD study as an accurat e reflec t io n of their well- be ing warning against supe rfic ial enquiry with childre n to guide design. The Favourite Place or Feature st udy , though taking a ver y sim ilar form at , betray s the play fulne ss of the class and the im po rt anc e of fun and frie nds. The respo nse s fro m Schoo l S are co nsist e nt with the GDBD study in which learning appe ars to prov ide a backdro p to the 1 45 childre n?s social agenda. This finding co rro bo rate s Clark ?s (200 5 ) assert io n that a range of enquiry metho ds is require d in orde r to gain a ro unde d view of the child?s perspe ct ive . Signific ant ly , the study indic at e s that po sit iv e or negativ e feelings to wards place s and things do typic ally relate to assoc iat io n rathe r than the designed inte nt io n itse lf. In this way childre n appe ar to be acce pt ing of the phy sic al fo rm of the schoo l and judge it in respe c t to the social activ it y which it affo rds. The asse mbly hall is a goo d exam ple of how a place ?s asso c iat ions rathe r than its phy sic al attribut e s can be co nside re d the overriding fact o r in childre n?s well- be ing at scho o l. It is quest io nable whet he r im pro ve d furnit ure , fo r exam ple , wo uld allev iate the expre sse d bo re do m . Dev e lo ping this idea furt her the Year 5 Barrac udas at Scho o l S cite d frie nds, foo tball and fun as the three main co nt ributo rs to a go o d day at scho o l. Equally , the thre e main reaso ns they gav e fo r their favo urite places were Play and fun, spo rt and frien ds im ply ing that the phy sic al schoo l and well- be ing are one step rem ov e d from each othe r; in this case well- be ing is depende nt on the so cial oppo rt unit ie s the childre n can creat e thro ugh use. It also appe ars that childre n?s creat iv ity enable s gam e s and act iv it ie s to be deve lo pe d aro und seem ingly innoc uo us phy sic al feat ure s of the scho o l which were not inte nde d in this way . Despite a cert ain lack of indiv idualit y in the respo nses it is also clear that childre n are far from a ho mo ge no us gro up and that reachin g a co nse nsus in terms of design prio rit ie s is highly unlik e ly . Cert ain respo nses regarding the frie ndship bench or the play gro und also indic ate the challe nge of inclusio n in scho o ls. Equally , with regards to the classro om , som e childre n find it a place in which they feel safe r and they expre ss a prefe re nce fo r hav ing the teache r prese nt . The classroo m in this respe c t co uld be describe d as mo re inclusive of children who are, or feel, so cially vulne rable . It is inte re st ing addit io nally that , altho ugh free do m is ment io ne d by the Barrac udas at Schoo l S, they do not nece ssarily want to escape from schoo l. On the co nt rary they appe ar to be very happy there . Finally , while the classro om rem ains a gene rally po pular place to be, it is clear fro m both scho o ls that , give n the cho ic e , the majo rit y wo uld choo se not to be in it and wo uld typic ally choo se to be outdoo rs. 1 46 4.3 Study 3: Take it or leave it 4.3.1 Aim and methodology Take it or leave it w as a study dev ise d to be less classro om - base d and mo re inte rac t ive than the FPF study , altho ugh its aim is com parable . The study was only carrie d out at Schoo l A because the schoo l co nt e xt creat e d the oppo rt unity . The scho o l is due to be replac e d in 201 0 by a purpo se - built new schoo l on the edge of the village and so the childre n wer e aske d to indic at e things or place s they wo uld eithe r like to take with them or leave behind. It was co nside re d nece ssary to inve st igate whet he r an alte rnat iv e appro ac h po rt ray s the childre n?s relat io nship with the phy sic al scho o l diffe rent ly . Care & Chil e s (200 6) aske d childre n to indic at e their favo urite and least favo urit e place s in the scho o l play gro und by using two diffe re nt ly co lo ure d balloons, an appro ac h which enco urage s the childre n to make po lar cho ic e s abo ut their scho o l env iro nm e nt from which patte rns of respo nses acro ss the who le gro up can then be asse sse d. The childre n tied one co lo ur ballo o n at their fav o urit e place and anot he r co lo ur at their least favo urit e . The fo ot ball area of the play gro und a fav o urite fo r som e , was also least fav o urite fo r othe rs - mainly the girls. This led to the decisio n to locat e an outdoor seat ing area there to make it a nice r place fo r a wider gro up of pupils to use. Virt ually every o ne ?s least favo urit e place was the to ile t s (Care & Chile s, 200 6 , p.6 7 ) . Ho wev e r, inve st igat ing why childre n feel po sit iv e ly or negat iv e ly towards phy sical elem e nt s of the schoo l pote nt ially uneart hs a relat io nship which disclose s so urc e s of cult ural influe nc e and value s fo r, exam ple . In the Take it or Leave it study , there fo re, rathe r than asking the childre n to no m inate one favo urit e and one least favo urit e place , this study allow e d the childre n to indic at e thre e of each. Seco ndly, inst e ad of using balloo ns, each child had thre e pape r plat e s with sm iling face s and thre e with sad face s. Childre n were subse que nt ly aske d to describe where they had place d their plat e s and why . 4.3.2 Participants Sc ho o l A co m prise s appro x im ate ly 100 childre n. All the childre n prese nt on the day of the study were include d. In addit io n to the Turt le s and Class 3, this meant that the rece pt ion class, kno w n as the Puffins, and Class 2 to ok part . 1 47 4.3.3 Standardised instructions T he study was carrie d out acro ss a who le schoo l day and organise d so that on ly one class was inv o lv e d at any one tim e . Each class was split into groups of betw ee n six and ten childre n. These childre n were each give n thre e pape r plat e s with happy face s on and three plat es with sad face s. The inst ruc t io ns giv e n were delibe rate ly si m ple : the childre n were aske d to walk aro und the who le schoo l and place sm iling plat e s on the place s or things they wo uld like to take with them to their new scho o l and sad plat e s on the place s or things they wo uld like to leav e . Each gro up to ure d the scho o l, hav ing been enco urage d to take a goo d loo k aro und befo re they decide d where they wo uld like to place their plat e s. Once the plat e s were place d, the childre n returne d to the classroom to describe on a piece of pape r where they put their plat e s and why t hey cho se these place s or things. While they were do ing this the next gro up were giv e n plat e s and began their to ur. 4.3.4 Evaluation and presentation of the results T he respo nse s to the Take it or Leav e it study were co llat e d in a way which refle cte d the F PF stu dy , altho ugh the num ber of childre n part ic ipat ing made it possible and mo re meaningful to sho w the reaso ns give n by childre n fo r each cho ic e they made . Fo r exam ple , if a gro up of childre n cho se a part ic ular bench, the result s indic at e what perce nt age of th ese childre n cho se the bench because it is com fo rt able or because it is a base for their game s, fo r exam ple . The num be r of childre n and the num be r of cho ice s they were making also allo we d the result s to be prese nte d by gende r. Hence the results are present e d in two types of table . The first type illust rate s the to p ten place s or things which the children wo uld eithe r take or leave , indic at ing the perce nt age of all cho ic e s made . This is illust rat e d by gende r and then sho w n overall fo r all childre n, be low which the to p 3 reaso ns giv e n by the childre n fo r their cho ice are show n. The seco nd table type sho w s the to p ten reaso ns childre n gave fo r cho o sing to eithe r take or leav e a place or thing. Again this is by gende r and then overall fo r all childre n und e r which the to p 3 place s or item s which they relat e to these reaso ns are sho w n. 1 48 4.3.5 Findings 4.3.5.1 Take it TAKE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Boys C o mp ute r To ys he d Eq ui pme n t Shed Frie n ds h ip Benc h Lego Bell Whit e bo a r d Wate r Fo unta in To ile ts Marki ngs 13% 8% 7% 5% 5% 4% 3% 3% 3% 3% Girls F rie n ds h ip Benc h Whit e bo a r d Li bra r y Co mp ute r Pla yg ro u nd Marki ngs Benc he s Win do ws Bin Bell Cla s s 3 steps 19% 9% 9% 6% 4% 4% 3% 3% 3% 3% All F rie n ds h ip Benc h Co mp ute r Whit e bo a r d Li bra r y To ys he d Pla yg ro u nd Marki ngs Eq ui pme n t Shed Bell Lego Benc he s 12% 10% 6% 6% 5% 4% 4% 3% 3% 3% Top 3 Reasons 1 F rie n ds Pla y/ Fu n Us ef ul ne s s Lea rn i ng / R ea din g Pla y/ Fu n 2 C o mf o rt/ Spa c e Lea rn i ng Lea rn i ng Feelin gs Us e 3 Quie t/C a lm Us e Pla y/ Fu n Or de r Vis ua l Table 4-17 Top ten items that children would take and the top 3 reasons given for each item 1 49 TAKE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Boys No Rea s o n Pla y/ Fu n Us e Lea rn i ng / R ea din g Hea lt h/ Nu tr it io n Frie n ds Exerc is e / Spo rt Feelin gs Co mf o rt/ Spa c e Ac hie ve - me n t 22% 20% 18% 9% 6% 4% 3% 3% 3% 2% Girls No R ea s o n Frie n ds Lea rn i ng / R ea din g Pla y/ Fu n Us e Feelin gs Co mf o rt/ Spa c e Co lo ur / Patte rns / Vis ua l Hyg ie ne / Clea n li ne s s / Or de r Hea lt h/ Nu tr it io n 21% 15% 14% 13% 11% 8% 6% 3% 2% 2% All No R ea s o n Pla y/ Fu n Us e Lea rn i ng / R ea din g Frie n ds Feelin gs Co mf o rt/ Spa c e Hea lt h/ Nu tr it io n Co lo ur / Patte rns / Vis ua l Exerc is e / Spo rt 22% 17% 14% 11% 9% 6% 4% 4% 3% 2% Top 3 Items 1 Pla yg ro u nd Marki ngs Co mp ute r Whit e bo a r d Li bra r y Frie n ds h ip Benc h 2 B e nc he s To ys he d Co mp ute r Co mp ute r A Frie n d 3 F rie n ds h ip Benc h Lego To ile ts Whit e bo a r d Cla s s 3 Steps 4.3.5.1.1 What boys would take and why T he results, describe d in Table 4 - 17 and Table 4 - 18 , illust rat e bo th differe nc es and sim ilarit ie s by gende r and age. Overall the mo st po pular elem e nt for bo y s appe ars to be the classroo m com put e rs with 13% of the vote. When this is analy sed by class, howev e r, it show s 30% of Class 2?s vote was fo r the com put e r where as no bo ys in the yo unge st classe s, the Puffins and the Turt le s, cho se to ?take ? the com put e r to the new schoo l. Bo y s also show e d a dist inc t prefe re nce fo r sheds used to sto re eithe r toy s or PE/ play equipme nt . The to y shed was predom inant ly the favo urit e of the Turt le s and Class 2, where as the bo y s in Class 3 appe ar to hav e move d on to mo re spo rt - o rie nte d play equipm e nt . Othe r diffe re nc e s occur with item s which are class - spe c ific like the Turt le s? lego fo r exam ple . The Puffin bo ys show a stro ng prefe re nc e fo r the grass at the back of the schoo l and altho ugh he is in the next class up, Gabrie l puts fo rw ard one of the reaso ns: ?whe n I fall over it will not hurt me.? Relev ant ly it is the only area of grass in the school gro unds. Table 4-18 Top ten reasons why children chose to take items and the top 3 items relating to each reason 1 50 Inte re st ing attac hm e nt s are also show n to the play gro und bell by the two yo unge st classe s. The bell is rung at the end of play t im e and while Dav id ment io ns how useful it is to kno w when to go into schoo l, Oliv e r is relie ve d that it means that the whist le is no t used anymo re . There is possibly an im plie d attac hm e nt to adult s and autho rity , in this exam ple , altho ugh Oliv e r?s actual com me nt s relate to the sensit iv ity of his ears. Othe r no tew o rt hy feat ures are the drain co ve rs which, rathe r than a so urc e of sm ell or dirt, are a so urc e of fun fo r the yo unge st Puffin boy s. The Puffins also stro ngly highlight the play gro und markings which sugge st a lev e l of detail in play and a height that is relev ant to them . The main reaso n giv e n by the bo ys fo r their cho ic e s is play and hav ing fun; altho ugh frie nds are im plie d, a dist inc t io n betwe e n the two is sugge ste d because the respo nse s relat ing to play and fun are not nece ssarily depe nde nt on the inv o lv eme nt of part ic ular frie nds, as appe are d to be the case in Scho o l S. There fo re whilst friends is a natural and po sit ive reaso n it can also im ply a lev e l of discrim inat io n. The seco nd mo st comm o n reaso n giv e n by boy s is usefulne ss. Simo n say s, fo r exam ple , the ? windm ill in the Do lfins Garde n beco us u can see witch way the wind is blo w ing.? Liam , also in Class 2, want e d to keep the glo be in case he neede d to find a place in the wo rld. It appe ars that these bo y s seek funct io n in the phy sic al schoo l. 4.3.5.1.2 What girls would take and why T he mo st com mo n reaso ns fo r girls to choo se a part of the phy sic al scho o l relates to frie nds which is co nsist e nt with the FP F study . Learning and reading com e s seco nd and play and fun third. It is evide nce of the social differe nc e betwe e n bo y s and girls and ho w th is refle ct s in their so cial behav io ur. Ov erall girls at Schoo l A sho w a part ic ular attac hm e nt to the frie ndship bench which also figure d stro ngly in the FP F study (See sect io n 4.2 .5 .2 .3 ) . Fo r girls expresse d attac hm e nt to the bench is mainly relate d to frie nds. On inspe c t io n ho we ve r there are peculiarit ies acro ss the classe s. While it is em phat ic ally po pular with Class 2 and Class 3 girls, fo r the yo ungest girls it is bo th highly fav o ure d and dislik e d by an equal num be r. Altho ugh the reaso ns fo r the yo unge st childre n?s sele c t io ns were gene rally no t av ailable , it is mo st like ly that attac hme nt is territorial and the territo ry is co nt ro lle d by olde r girls. In addit io n, po pularit y may be linke d to the qualit y of the yo unge st girls? relat io nships with the olde r girls. 1 51 The Puffins also have a part ic ular fo ndne ss fo r the othe r benche s aro und the playgro und which they appear to hav e made their own. Over 20% o f respo nse s were in fav o ur of these benche s. In Table 4 - 1 7 it can be seen that girls? mo tiv at io n for cho o sing item s, othe r than frie nds, is signific an t ly relat e d to learning. This is evide nt in their cho ice s of whit e bo ard, com put e rs and the library . Howev e r, this is again a phenom e no n of age and co nt ribut e d to mainly by the oldest childre n. In the yo unge st class, the Puffins, the girls did no t include a ny explic it learning to o ls in eithe r the things they wante d to take or tho se they wo uld prefe r to leav e . 4.3.5.2 Leave it T he results, illust rat e d in Table 4 - 1 9 and Table 4 - 20 im ply a g reate r co nse nsus of why things are cho se n to be left than why things are cho se n to be take n, cent ring ro und the curtailm e nt of free dom , space and cleanline ss. LEAVE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Boys He a d ' s Of f ic e Toilets Benche s Library Marking s Cloak room Bin Friendshi p bench Toy shed Printer 9% 8% 7% 5% 5% 5% 3% 3% 3% 3% Girls He a d ' s Of f ic e Toilets Cloak room Bin Gate Friendshi p bench Whiteboar d Lego Compute r Equipment shed 9% 8% 7% 7% 6% 4% 3% 3% 2% 2% All He a d ' s Of f ic e Toilets Cloak room Bin Benches Gate Friendship bench Library Markings Whiteboar d 9% 8% 6% 5% 5% 4% 4% 3% 3% 3% Top 3 Reasons 1 C o mf o rt/ Spa c e Hyg ie ne Co mf o rt/ Spa c e Hyg ie n e No Rea s o n Free do m / R ule s / Dis c ipl ine 2 F re e do m / R ule s / Dis c ipl ine Co mf o rt/ Spa c e Or de r Co mf o rt/ Spa c e Us e 3 F e e lin gs Peo ple / Beha vio u r Us e Use Table 4-19 Top ten items that children would leave and reasons given 1 52 LEAVE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Boys No R ea s o n Co mf o rt/ Spa c e Hyg ie ne / Or de r Saf e ty Us e Free do m / R ule s / Dis c ipl ine Stim ula tio n/ Ima gi na t io n Co lo ur / Patte rns / Vis ua l Feelin gs Lea rn i ng / R ea din g 26% 20% 9% 9% 8% 4% 4% 3% 3% 3% Girls C o mf o rt/ Spa c e No Rea s o n Hyg ie ne / Or de r Us e Free do m / R ule s / Dis c ipl ine Saf e ty Feelin gs Up ke e p Nat ure Stim ula tio n/ Ima gi na t io n 25% 24% 16% 9% 6% 5% 5% 4% 3% 2% All No R ea s o n Co mf o rt/ Spa c e Hyg ie ne / Or de r Us e Saf e ty Free do m / R ule s / Dis c ipl ine Feelin gs Stim ula tio n/ Ima gi na t io n Up ke e p Co lo ur / Patte rns / Vis ua l 25% 22% 13% 8% 7% 5% 4% 3% 3% 2% Top 3 Items 1 M a rki ngs Hea d ' s Of f ic e To ile ts Pri nte r Fire g ua r d 2 D o lls Ho us e Clo a kro o m Bin Whit e - bo a rd Tarma c 3 B e nc he s Li bra r y Clo a kro o m To y s hed Cla s s 3 Steps Table 4-20 Top ten reasons why children chose to leave items and the top 3 items relating to each T he headte ac he r?s offic e was the m o st commo nly chose n place to leav e behind, altho ugh on inspe c t io n it only appe are d in the respo nse s of Class 3. Reading into this respo nse , sugge st s a disaffe c t io n with autho rit y . Mark says he do es no t like the headt e ac he r while Geo rgi n a rem ark s that the h eadt e ac he r?s offic e is ?big and scary .? Howeve r, if this is gene rally the case , the writt e n reaso ns which the boy s gave are less co nfro nt at io nal: Ro ss ment io ns that the offic e ?take s up a lot of the play gro und,? im pinging on their lim ite d play ing space . Ma ny othe r childre n agre e with this sent ime nt . Fairne ss is also a facto r. Sarah ment io ns that the headt e ac he r?s office is ?too big and we hav e a tiny classro om .? Ov erall the to ile t s are the seco nd least favo urit e place but once again this is the result of th e older childre n?s respo nse s. The to ile t s do no t appe ar at all in the list of the Puffins or the Turt le s. The Scho o l S exam ple of separat e to ilet s fo r diffe re nt ages in co njunc t io n with this finding might sugge st that the olde r childre n hav e an issue with the way the yo unge r childre n use the to ile t . It is 1 53 true that many childre n will be go ing to the to ilet alo ne fo r the first time and will pro bably no t be used to co mm unal to ilet s. 4.3.5.2.1 What boys would leave and why O f no te in the boy s? list of things which do no t appear fo r the girls are the play ground benche s and the library . These benche s, as ment io ne d in Sect ion 4.3 .5 .1 .2 , appe ar to be the yo unge st girls? territo ry , and it wo uld seem that there is a degree of recipro c alit y in the bo y s? respo nse s, who are no t keen on taking them with them . This exte nds to all the bo y s exce pt the Turt les. The reve rse is also cl ear fo r lego fo r which the Turt le bo y s show an em phat ic attac hme nt to but which a large num be r of the Turt le girls wo uld no t like to see in their new schoo l. Safe t y appe ars to be a signific ant issue part ic ularly fo r the yo unge r bo y s, which corre spo nds with the results of the GDBD study . Hurt ing onese lf appe ars to be a daily co ncern. Fo r exam ple the Class 3 steps leading to the mo bile classroom are not designe d with childre n in mind and sev e ral of the childre n ment io n that it is po ssible to get yo ur feet stu ck in the gaps. Also , a boy in Class 2 declare s that he does not like the Turt le s sto ne bench because ?if some o ne fell over they will hurt them self.? 4.3.5.2.2 What girls would leave and why Class 2 girls co m plain abo ut their clo ak room to the point that it rece ive s the highe st pro po rt io n of respo nses fo r one class (30% ) . The Class 2 bo y s agre e with this but no t to the sam e exte nt (18% ) . The clo ak ro om indic at e s an area in which a child?s po sse ssio ns are kept and, in this case , space is extreme ly lim ite d. This can be relate d to the earlie r discussio n of territo ry and the curre nt design brie fs? calls fo r childre n to feel a sense of owne rship (DfES, 200 3 b) . Girls, part ic ularly , ment io n the scho o l gate as a place they do not want to take with them . In their memo ry is the old gate which was much lo we r and much less secure . Lara say s that the ?high gate feels like yo u can nev e r get out? and Geo rgia ment io ns the black gate because it ?fee ls like a priso n.? The refe re nc e to priso n is comm o n. BCSE (2008 , p.5 ) sugge st s that ?whilst schoo l entranc e s and exits need to be mo nito re d and co nt rolle d, a scho o l is no t a prison and sho uldn?t lo ok or feel like one.? 1 54 4.3.6 Discussion 4.3.6.1 Level of interaction Boys Girls 1 O bje c t 43.6% 1 Furnit ure - o ut doo r 24.9% 2 Arc hit e c t ure 11.5% 2 Obje c t 21.5% 3 Furnit ure - o ut doo r 10.8% 3 Archit e c t ure 20.1% Table 4-21 Top 3 categories of items that boys and girls would like to take E v aluat ing the item s which the childre n cho se is inte rest ing when do ne by the cate go ry of design they fall into . Table 4 - 21 sho w s that the to p thre e ca tego rie s are the sam e fo r boys and girls but the boy s? orie nt at io n to obje c t s and the girls? tende ncy towards outdoo r furnit ure, like benche s, are co nspic uo us. The bo y s? result s are guide d by their affiliat io n with the to y s and spo rt s equipm e nt and no t surprisingly 32% of reaso ns fo r cho o sing objec t s are relat e d to play and fun. Fro m this study archite c t ure does appe ar to have a bearing on the child?s co nsc ious tho ught s abo ut the env iro nm e nt . Com paring the reaso ns why boy s and girls hav e chosen outdoo r furnit ure rev e als that 16% of bo y s? respo nse s is abo ut play and fun and 23% abo ut frie nds. Fo r girls 8% of respo nse s is abo ut play and fun and 44% is abo ut frie nd s. This indic ate s the po te nt ially mo re discrim inato ry behav io ur of girls socially and the phy sic al obje c t s which suppo rt this. Asso c iat e d with this it is also no table from the result s that the classro om and its co nte nt s do no t appe ar to be the subjec t of t he sam e exert io n of social territo ry as that fo und in the play gro und, im ply ing diffe re nt perce pt io ns of owne rship. Within this cate go ry the em erge nc e of the frie ndship bench as an im po rt ant and well unde rst oo d cult ural feat ure co nt inue s to appe ar. Katie in Class 2 expre sse s that it affo rds a ?quie t tim e and if yo u do n?t hav e som eo ne to play with they will co me up to yo u.? Boys Girls 1 Arc hit e c t ure 36.7% 1 Archit e c t ure 33.2% 2 O bje c t 18.1% 2 Obje c t - o ut doo r 17.2% 3 Furnit ure - o ut doo r 10.0% 3 Obje c t 16.8% Table 4-22 Top 3 categories of items that boys and girls would like to leave 1 55 Table 4 - 2 2 , r epre se nt ing the cho ic e s abo ut item s childre n wo uld like to leav e , indic at e s a co mmo n disaffe c t io n to wards elem ent s of archit ec t ure with over 40% of reaso ns fo r this fro m both boy s and girls citing co m fo rt and space . The site of the schoo l is indee d rest ric te d. So fo r exam ple , Jack refe rs to his own classroom as small and say s ?we are to o squashe d.? Endorsing the summ ary of GD BD, it wo uld appe ar that the ro le of archit ec t ure , in the child?s p erce pt io n, relat e s to space . It is also im po rt ant to ident ify that , at least spat ially , archit e c t ure is im po rt ant in term s of well- be ing. The two sets of results to ge t he r sugge st the lev e l at which the childre n inte rac t and a triangle betw ee n obje c t s, outdoo r furnit ure and archit ec t ure . Clark (200 5 ) asse rt s that obje c t s repre se nt a lay e r of meaning which are used by childre n as landm ark s. The obje ct culture within mainst re am prim arie s, if no t minim al, is unco o rdinate d; evide nce fro m the thre e scho o ls highlight s a co nt rast with the educat io nal philo so phie s suppo rt ing Mo nt e sso ri and Steine r, fo r exam ple (Lillard, 200 8) . The Schoo l B Year 1 classroom , by com pariso n, co nt ains a teddy bear, boo ks, inte ract iv e whit e board, pro je c t o r and lapt o p, childre n?s plant s, a num be r mat, and the childre n?s tray cabine t yet it is no table that many of these canno t be to uche d. An allo c ate d drawe r seem s to be the only thing that the childre n feel is theirs and so the resultant territo rial fo cus o n drawe rs seem s to be dispro po rt io nat e . Conve rse ly , the Mo nte sso ri philo so phy rem ains heav ily base d on the prov isio n of obje ct s fo r disco ve ry and manipulat ion and which prov ide a co mm o n deve lo ping co nte x t for the child as they get olde r (Standing, 199 8 ) . Sim ilarly M. Kirigin (perso nal comm unic at io n, 20 May 200 8 ) po int s out that Steine r scho o ls obje c ts and mate rials are seen as fundam e nt al and it is viewe d as esse nt ial that they are made from natural mate rials, part ic ularly woo d . Do ddingt o n & Hilto n (200 7 ) addit io nally ident ify Fro e be l as apply ing the co nce pt of disco ve ry thro ugh obje cts with his geom e t ric woo de n block s. These exam ple s of alte rnativ e educat io nal philo so phies illust rat e a clear presc riptio n of the env iro nm e nt and prov ide an exam ple of ho w adult s define childre n?s discov e ry even in what might be co nside re d more child - c e nt re d schoo ls. Howe v e r they also illust rat e a fundam e nt al shift to wards obje c t s within these scho o ls. Alex fro m the Schoo l A Turt le s raise s ano t he r relev ant dim e nsio n to childre n?s relat io nship with obje c ts. Speak ing of things he wo uld like to leav e behind he say s, ?the num be r brick s because it make s me get bad.? There are indic at io ns within this study that childr e n link their behav io ur or the behav io ur of othe rs to parts of the phy sic al schoo l. This may be an exam ple where the 1 56 establishme nt of territo ry creat e s discrim inat ing behav io ur or, in Alex ? exam ple , a set of objec t s enco urage s him to behav e in a way which the teache r deems unacc e pt able . This idea is deve lo pe d furthe r in Chapt e r 5 and 6. 4.3.6.2 The process T he Take It or Leave It study was energe t ic and very visual which meant that patte rns co uld easily be detec t e d and it was an adv ant age that childre n could go out and loo k, rathe r than hav e to reme m be r their scho o l, enabling the study to acce ss mo re subco nsc io us fact o rs. It was clear that there was a gro up ment ality to the pro ce ss which was exace rbate d by the visual nature of the exerc ise and there fo re it was not p ossible to gain inde pe nde nt respo nse s from each of the childre n. Bo th this chapt e r and Chapt e r 3 hav e prese nt e d rese arc h susce pt ible to the influe nc e of teache rs, po ssibly rev e aling mo re abo ut the way the adult s think than the childre n. In addit io n the chi ldre n have been able to easily influe nce each othe r and, as a result of bo th of these po int s, it is like ly that the findings so far hav e been mo re co mmo n and unanim o us leading to po te nt ially inv alid asse rtio ns that Educat io n pro pagat e s ho mo ge ne it y . Addit io nally , the pro ce ss aske d the childre n fo r inst inct iv e respo nse s, by placing the plat e s, and reaso ne d respo nse s by asking them to explain their cho ic e s; it was inte re st ing to see ho w the cho ic e s were ratio nalise d. Once again, it is ident ifie d in this thesis that the unre aso ne d respo nse s are mo st rev e aling in that they are less curt aile d by the dem ands of the quest io n ?why ?? Finally , the asse rt io n that archit e c t ure is less prev ale nt must on one hand be regarde d as obv io us because childre n were no t able to ac ce ss aspe c t s of the archite c t ure with their plat e s. On the othe r hand this lack of access is rele v ant in itse lf to the child?s daily expe rie nc e . Ho we v er, both studie s rely on co nsc io us respo nses fro m the childre n which may no t reflec t the nature of design and, in part ic ular, archite c ture (Rasm usse n, 1964 ) . 1 57 4.3.7 Review Figure 4-18 Playground markings at School A T he findings of the Take it or Leave it study are co nsist e nt with the FPF Study dem o nst rat ing that within the achiev em e nt cult ure at Schoo l A there is still a co nsist e nt need fo r play, frie nds and phy sic al expre ssio n. This was no t expre sse d in The GDBD Study and indic at e s that childre n?s well - be ing has diffe re nt facet s and it is im po rt ant to use a varie t y of appro ac he s in orde r to evaluate and unde rst and them . The Study reve ale d that there is an im po rt ant relat io nship betw ee n the eleme nt s of design, part ic ularly betw ee n archite c t ure , obje c t s and outdo or furnit ure which furt he r expo se d diffe re nc e s by gende r. Girls were mo st aligne d to outdo o r furnit ure , indic at ing social/ te rrito rial behav io ur where as bo y s expre sse d a great e r prefe re nc e fo r obje c ts which change d from play to spo rt with age. The girls? po te nt ial need fo r owne rshi p of space , as oppo se d to the bo ys? fo r obje c ts, is furt he r evide nced by the respo nse to the Class 2 clo ak room . Archite c turally , the childre n indic at e d the im po rt ance of space . As a result of the study no t being carrie d out in the classroo m it is feasible that the childre n felt less influe nc e d by the teache r and the cult ure and the findings indic at e the subt le t y of childre n?s inte rac t io n with the phy sical schoo l. For exam ple , altho ugh refe re nc e s to co lo ur were very lim it e d; refe re nce s to patt erns were not. Addit io nally , elem e nt s like play gro und markings (Se e 1 58 Figure 4 - 18 ) and dra in cov ers, fo r exam ple , figure d stro ngly and im plie d asso c iat io ns with play a nd so cial activ it y . Equally there is ev ide nc e that childre n react base d on the place s or things othe r gro ups relat e to by taking an oppo sit e stance ; this was evide nt by age, gende r and class and again indic at e s the im po rtanc e of territ o ry and owne rship. Wh et he r dete rm ine d by the cult ure or the so cial behav io ur of the child, it is stro ngly appare nt that the phy sic al schoo l is giv e n meaning and asso c iat io n which is an overriding fact o r in childre n?s relat io nship with it. 4.4 Implications for the continuation of research T he studie s illust rate d in this chapt e r sugge st that childre n?s co nsc io us relat io nships with their phy sic al scho o l in respec t to their well- be ing are fundam e nt ally asso c iat ive , in which po sit iv e or negat iv e ident ific at io n relat e s to the so cial and learning oppo rt unit ie s they prese nt . Within reaso n, design qualit y and mate rials, fo r exam ple , are typic ally unque st io ne d indic at ing a cult ural acce pt ance of, at least in these study scho o ls, their exist ing schoo l env iro nme nt. This does not nece ssarily im p ly that such qualit ie s are unim po rt ant but they cert ainly appear to be less co nsc io us and, with respe ct to well - be ing, seco ndary . Childre n?s respo nse s so far im ply that a furt he r inv e st igat io n of posit ive or negat iv e ident ific at io n with phy sic al eleme nt s of their schoo l is highly rele v ant , and will arguably rev e al the nature of their asso c iat io ns with the so cial and cult ural scho o l. If, prese nte d with a num be r of diffe re nt phy sic al eleme nt s, a child expre sse s a generally po sit ive sense of ident ific at io n, t his is lo gically an indic at o r of ident it y and feelings of inclusio n. Sim ply feelings of cum ulat iv e po sit iv e ident ific at io n and inclusio n can be refe rred to as a child?s sense of belonging and its rele v ance to the well - be ing mo de l is ev ide nt in Woo dill et al.?s (19 94 ) definit io n of well- be ing who describe d being, belonging, becoming. T he lim ite d lite rat ure on belo nging ofte n begins by citing Maslo w (19 43 ) who co nt e nds that belo nging is a basic hum an need which must be satisfie d befo re effe c t iv e highe r lev e l funct io ning can take place . Bo th Libbe y (200 4) and Willm s (20 00 ) im plic it ly suppo rt these fundam e nt s of Maslow ?s (1943 ) theo ry while Baum e ist e r & Leary (199 5 , p.4 9 8) maint ain that ? m uch of what hum an beings do is do ne in the serv ice of belo ngingne ss .? Mo rgan ident ifie s many of the sam e elem e nts of the well - be ing mo de l and co rro bo rat e s the asse rt io n that mult iple facto rs add com ple x it y in rese arc h but, crit ically , she highlight s that 1 59 ?belo ngingne ss is a variable of som e im po rt ance in many aspe ct s of the educat ional co nte x t (200 3 , p.32 ) . T his is echo e d by Ande rm an (200 2 , p.7 96) : In rece nt years, a small but im port ant lite rat ure on scho o l belo nging has emerged. Result s of a variet y of studie s co nve rge on the co nsist e nt finding that perce iv ing a sense of belo nging or co nnec t e dne ss with one?s scho o l is relat ed to po sit iv e academ ic , psy cho lo gic al, and b ehav ioral outcom e s during ado le sc e nc e . Altho ugh diffe re nt rese arc he rs operat io nalize and study belo nging in vari o us way s, there is a gene ral co nse nsus amo ng a bro ad array of rese arc he rs that a perce iv e d sense of belo nging is a basic psycho logic al need and that when this need is met, po sit ive outco me s occur. Rele v ant ly Voelk l (199 6, p.7 62 ) relat e s belo ngingne ss to a stude nt ?s sense of being a ?signific ant mem be r of the schoo l comm unit y , is acce pt e d and respe c t e d in schoo l, has a sense of inclusio n in schoo l, and include s schoo l as part of one?s self definitio n.? Sim ilarly , Goo de now & Grady (19 93 ) , altho ugh po ssibly unde re stim at ing a child?s own will and agenda, asse rt that belonging to a schoo l env iro nm e nt depe nds on the degre e to which stude nt s feel ?perso nally acce pt e d, respe ct e d, in clude d, and suppo rt e d.? If this sense is indee d posit iv e then it is ratio nal to start to use the language of inclusion in scho o ls and design which part ic ipat io n alo ne , fo r exa m ple, do es no t just ify . Figure 4 - 19 , reco gnise s the no tio n of being, belo nging, becom ing by illust rat ing ho w belo nging may be view e d as cent ral in the pursuit of well- be ing and im po rt ant ly as a trigger fo r change s in estee m , perso nal ident it y and othe r lo nge r term outcom e s. As a cent ral kin gpin of the mo de l, rese arc hing a child?s sense of belo nging sugge st s a pract ic al appro ac h to appraising the com ple x ity of well- be ing. 1 60 Figure 4-19 Belonging ? central to the well-being model Motivation Health Enjoyment Achievement Social interaction Contribution Participation Knowledge Successes Skills/ Attributes Self-esteem Health Recognition Self- concepts Identification /Belonging Social responsibility Economic well-being Economic Advantage Stimulation Confidence Inclusion Personal identity Social Capital Social Cohesion Expression Social Identity Freedom Relaxation Personal responsibility Effort Control Physical activity Respect Creation Trust Understanding Relationships Affection 1 61 4.5 Summary Childre n, as Piage t (19 75 ) asse rt e d , think diffe re nt ly fro m adult s and Chapte r 4 has rev e ale d evide nce of the way s in which childre n think abo ut and inte rac t with phy sic al space s and obje ct s. Childre n?s respo nse s in the studie s bro adly co ncur with Clark who ident ifie d three type s of asso c iat io n with, in this case , spaces: ? Som e were mere ly funct io nal, othe rs senso ry and othe rs sym bo lic (20 05 , p.1) .? Fundam e nt ally the rese arch metho ds em plo ye d here hav e reve ale d unsurprising result s. Giv e n the cho ic e , childre n wo uld gene rally prefe r no t to be in the classroom or in the library in fav o ur of play ing outside . In the same way that the classro om has prov e d an enduring feature of educat io n, the urge to no t be in one has also persiste d (Bo nd et al., 200 2) . This po te nt ially relat e s to the curt ailme nt of phy sical and so cial oppo rt unit ie s. Ho wev e r, relat ing the findings to tho se of Chapt e r 3, the Schoo l A Turt le s signific ant ly repo rt that , altho ugh they wo uld rathe r be som e w he re else , the diffe re nc e betw ee n a goo d day and a bad day at scho o l is still to be fo und in the classroo m . Unde rst anding the po int or leve l of inte rac t io n is vital in designing child - c e nt re d scho o ls and childre n hav e been sho w n to repo rt to inte rac t at a phy sic al lev e l which is close st to them . Girls in part ic ular are enthusiast ic abo ut outdoo r furnit ure and it appe ars that this furniture sust ains their so cial netwo rk and territ o rie s in a way that classro om s do no t. Bo y s, on the othe r hand, are mo re incline d towards obje ct s relat ing to outdo o r play and spo rt s. Th ese findings wo uld sugge st there fo re that a schoo l inspire d by well- be ing sho uld co nside r aspe c t s of design which are clo se r to the child and maint ain there is an inhe re nt risk in the curre nt pro gram me that tasking archit e c ts with schoo l design misdire ct s the focus away fro m child - c e nt re d outco me s. Cert ainly at a co nsc io us leve l, childre n?s co nnec t io ns betw ee n well - be ing and the phy sic al scho o l wo uld appe ar to prio rit ise elem e nt s othe r than archit ec t ure and im ply a link to sense s such as to uch. Negat iv e rep o rt s abo ut to ile t s and bins equally indic ate the im po rt ance of children?s sense s as a co nside rat io n in design and use. Ho wev e r, it must be remem be re d that cult urally childre n?s well- be ing can be dire c t e d to cert ain obje c ts and away from othe rs , as Chapt e r 3 indic ate d ; perhaps, as Beine r (20 05 ) claim s, archit e c t ural space s are mo re ho ne st and there is an im plic it finding within this rese arc h so far that archite c t ure does have a mo re sublim inal ro le . Furt he rmo re , the rese arc h metho ds so ught the childre n?s co nsc io us respo nse s and, if the child?s relat io nship with archit e c ture is mo re subco nsc io us , then the co nclusio ns fro m this chapt e r alo ne 1 62 are pro bably sim plist ic . Rasm usse n (19 64 ) cert ain ly ident ifie s hum ans as hav ing a very subt le relat io nship with archit e c ture which ?no t everyo ne can unde rst and (p.9 ) .? Equally howev e r, he indic at e s that childre n init ially dev e lo p an appre c iat ion of archit e c t ure thro ugh obje c t s like balls, fo r exam ple . Curre nt ly there fo re this discussio n is inconc lusiv e giv e n the reliance of the rese arc h on childre n?s co nsc io us thought . No ne t he le ss, what has emerge d is that posit ive ident ific at io n with aspe c t s of the phy sic al schoo l used to dete rm ine a child?s overall sense of belo nging prese nt s a useful rese arc h too l with which to evaluate a child?s relat ionship with the phy sic al, social and cult ural scho o l. The asso c iat ive nature of childre n?s respo nse s so far indic at e s that , at a mo re affe ct iv e lev e l, the thre e canno t be easily separate d as prev io us rese arc h has tende d to try to do . Rev e aling what aspe c t s of the so cial and cult ural schoo l the child asso c iat e s with a chair for exam ple and, co nv e rse ly , ho w the chair influe nc e s the social and cult ural schoo l indic ate s this inte rde pe nde ncy and the dev e lo ping atte nt io n of this thesis . Chapt e r 5 will describe how such rese arc h has been pursue d and ho w ident ified lim it at io ns of the metho do lo gy to date have been addre sse d. 1 63 Chapter 5: In search of belonging ? so me pupils rece ive subt le messages fro m their teache rs that sugge st that they are not value d a s learne rs (Ainscow , 2003 , p.1 9 ) . 5.1 Introduction Chapt e r 3 and 4 quest io ned childre n?s perce pt io ns of their own well - be ing and what phy sic al elem e nt s of the schoo l they believ e make them feel go o d or bad or which they like or dislike . The result s rev eal a mo re subt le inte rac t io n with the phy sic al schoo l env iro nme nt relat ing to the child?s so cial and phy sic al expre ssio n; this is co nsiste nt with the relat ive ly objec t ive mo de l of well- be ing prese nt e d in Chapt e r 1 and diffe re d notably betw e e n girls and boy s. Howev e r, there is evide nc e that well - be ing is inde e d most like ly to be shape d by the cult ure of the schoo l in which the physic al and hum an scho o l env ironm e nt s inex t ric ably com bine . As such, childre n?s relat io nships with the phy sical scho o l were sho w n to be oste nsibly asso c iat iv e and so fact o rs which can o ccupy designe rs like co lo ur and mate rials are to a great exte nt seco ndary . Addit io nally it has been seen that asso c iat io n allo ws cert ain aspe c ts of the phy sic al schoo l to be appro priat e d in orde r to dire c t childre n to wards favoure d outcom e s. The well - be in g mo de l illustrat e d the co m ple x ity of the psy cho lo gic al and phy sio logic al jo urney which carries childre n from schoo l ho pe fully thro ugh to healt hy , happy and pro spe ro us adult s and making sense of these relatio nships has co nfo unde d the researc h into educat io nal design. Chapt e r 4 co nclude d that rese arc h explo ring asso c iat io ns by asse ssing childre n?s po sit ive ident ific at io n with aspe c ts of the phy sic al schoo l and thus c um ulat iv e ly prese nt ing a measure of a child?s sense of belo nging to scho o l , is a meaningful rese arc h angle on well- be ing. This, it was predic t e d co uld shed light on the nature of childre n?s well - be ing with respec t to the phy sic al schoo l witho ut becom ing lo st in its com ple x it y . This chapt e r there fo re prese nt s a pro gre ssio n of the prim ary rese arc h b ase d on the adv ance me nt of the well - be ing mo de l describe d in Chapt e r 4, aim ing to measure childre n?s sense of belo nging in respe c t to eleme nt s of their phy sic al schoo l and against the subje c t iv e influe nc e s on their daily expe rie nce , like gende r, age, perce pt io ns of happine ss at schoo l, ability and behav io ur and their po pularit y . 1 64 Chapt e r 3, part ic ularly , ident ifie d the signific anc e of the actio ns and judgme nt s of the teache r to the child?s sense of well - being. These judgme nt s were ofte n expresse d or giv e n m eaning thro ugh the phy sic al scho o l and there fo re the teache r?s perce pt io n of the child, reinfo rce d by or po ssibly inst igat e d by the phy sic al env iro nm e nt , wo uld appe ar to hav e a pote nt ially pro found im pac t on the child. Fo r this reaso n, discov e ring patte rns in the way this mate rialise s across a range of childre n is of great inte re st. In part ic ular this means evaluat ing any co nnec t io n betwe e n the childre n?s perce pt io ns of the phy sic al env iro nm e nt and ho w the teache r perce ives them . The co nclusio ns of bo th th e prev io us chapt e rs hav e cite d the lim it at io ns of inve st igat ing childre n?s co nsc io us relat io nships with the phy sical scho o l. By inv e st igat ing po sit iv e ident ific at io n and belo nging indiv idually with each child, and separat e ly com paring this with children?s repo rt s on othe r aspe c ts of scho o l offe rs the chanc e to ev aluat e som e of the subco nsc io us fact o rs at wo rk . In addit io n, Harpe r (20 02 ) describe s the pho to elicit at ion metho d used as a mo re pro bing appro ac h. Chapt e r 5 will prese nt gene ric co nclusio ns abo ut childre n and their relat io nship with the phy sic al schoo l. These are prese nt ed fo r the olde r childre n altho ugh the result s fo r Year 1 & 2, which are fully prese nte d in Appe ndix 10, are refe rre d to ; the effe c t of seve ral yea rs of imme rsio n in the schoo l cult ure and socie ty on the olde r childre n is of most inte re st . Chapt e r 6 will then go on to inv e st igate the detaile d respo nse s fo r part ic ular aspect s of the phy sic al schoo l in relat io n to well- be ing, belo nging and inclusio n. T he intro duc to ry rese arc h in Schoo l B and separate design inte rv e nt io n at Scho o l S will be co m pare d with some of the result s to giv e a pract ic al view of their validit y . 5.1.1 Aim of the belonging studies T he overall aim of the researc h prese nte d in this Chapt e r is to assess childre n?s ident ific at io n with their phy sic al env iro nm e nt ranging fro m the archit e ctural thro ugh to com m unic at io n and deco rat iv e feat ure s, as the prece ding rese arc h has dire c t e d. Po sit iv e ident ific at ion with indiv idual feat ure s is aggre gate d to pro v ide a gene ral sense of belo nging fo r each child. The relat iv e im po rt anc e of funct io nal/ ae st he t ic , cult ural and social assoc iat io n will be evaluate d by co nside ring the nature of each feat ure; the schoo l hall fo r exam ple was deem e d to be highly cult urally signific ant . The asse ssm e nt will then be rev ie we d against the m e s which have em erge d in the rese arc h prese nt e d in earlie r chapt ers, including measure s of childre n?s class so cial netw ork , peer relat io nships, and their expre sse d hap pine ss and self - co nc e pt s relat ing to abilit y and behav io ur. In this way patte rns will be inv e st igat e d which , fo r example , co uld sho w that the least po pular 1 65 childre n relate to part ic ular aspe c t s of the phy sic al scho o l mo re than othe r childre n, co nt ribut ing to a discussio n of inclu siv e design. Alte rnat iv e ly, girls who are perce ive d to be less able may be rev e ale d to ident ify mo st with outdo o r furnit ure . Ov erall the studie s aim to unde rst and evide nt patt e rns linking the child?s well- be ing to their phy sic al env iro nme nt to co nclude ho w design might po sit ive ly co nt ribut e . In part ic ular, base d on the discussio n of prev io us chapt e rs, the influe nc e of behav io ur and achiev em e nt / abilit y is of part ic ular relev anc e . The studie s are: S tudy 4 - Identity Cards: A serie s of pho to graphs of the phy sic al schoo l env iro nme nt show n to childre n who indic at e which they ident ify with and which they do no t using sm iley face s linke d to a 1 to 5 Like rt scale . S tudy 5 - Social Maps: A social mapping exerc ise which inv o lv e s eac h child indic at ing the perce ive d clo se ne ss of their relat io nships with ev ery othe r child in the class, aggre gat e d to prese nt a social map show ing the mo st and least so cially cent ral childre n. S tudy 6 - Good Bad Happy Sad : For a varie ty of measure s relat ing to abilit y , behav io ur and happine ss each child is aske d to indic at e perce pt io ns of their daily expe rie nc e at schoo l . Separat e ly the teache r is also aske d to indic at e their perce pt io ns of the child?s abilit y and behav io ur. 5.1.2 Ethics and consent T he studie s de scribe d in this Chapt e r were prese nt e d to and endo rse d by the Buck s New Univ e rsity Ethic s Com m it t ee in March 2007 . A risk asse ssme nt was supplie d and used by the schoo ls. Co nse nt enabling childre n?s invo lve me nt was gaine d by means of a lett er to pare nt s de scribing the rese arc h, its purpo se and ho w the childre n wo uld be invo lv e d. This lette r was draft e d fo r the schoo l to adapt and send out in their standard fo rm at and language (See Appe ndix 5 ). 5.1.3 Participants T he studie s were carrie d out at the sam e two schoo l s as the explo rato ry studie s prese nt e d in Chapt e r 3 and 4: Scho o l S and Scho o l A. Each schoo l had a jo int Year 1/ 2 class part ic ipat ing. In Scho o l S, a Year 5 class took part and in Scho o l A their jo int Year 5/ 6 class part ic ipat e d. In to tal 104 childre n co n t ribute d. 1 66 5.1.4 The Methodology Re v ie w ing the way s in which peo ple hav e atte m pt e d to measure belo nging, or scho o l co nne c te dne ss as Libbey (20 04 ) prefe rs to call it, rev eals a tradit io n of quest io nnaire - base d rese arc h which has been alm ost who lly carrie d out in seco ndary schoo l sett ings. Chapt e r 1 sugge st e d why seco ndary scho o l is perhaps too late to fun dam e nt ally influe nc e well- be ing fo r childre n who se prev io us scho o l expe rie nc e has alre ady large ly dete rm ine d the range of th eir po ssible outcom e s. Chapt e r 4 describe d belo nging as cum ulat iv e ly repre se nt ing a child?s po sit iv e ident ific at io n with aspe c t s of schoo l. Ande rman (2002 ) do es no t specifically d efin e belo nging yet his quest io nnaire rev e als the im po rt ant aspec t s of scho o l which co nt ribut e to belo nging and , in his view , fundam e nt ally cent re aro und the so cial and cult ural env iro nm e nt s. Building on the wo rk of Moo dy & Bearm an (199 8 ) , he quest io ns the degree to which a stude nt wo uld say : 1. I feel like I am part of this scho o l. 2. I am happy to be at this scho o l. 3. I feel clo se to peo ple at this schoo l. 4. I feel safe in my scho o l. 5. T he teache rs at this scho o l treat stude nt s fairly . Studie s from the so cial scienc e s primarily fo cus on these so cial and cult ural aspe ct s of belo nging, prio rit ising them abov e belo nging deriv e d from aest he t ic and inanim at e feat ures . Even in Voekl (199 6) , who unusually fo r this field of rese arc h intro duc e s the co nce pt of place in her enquiry , there is a presuppo sit io n that the psy cho lo gic al env iro nme nt do m inate s. In this sense co nne ct io n to the human eleme nt s of the schoo l will override or dete rm ine belo nging to the phy s ic al scho o l, an asse rt io n which is co nsist e nt with the co nclusio n of Chapt e r 4 ident ify ing associat io n as an overriding facto r in design fo r well- be ing, at least with regard to the child?s co nsc io usne ss. Quest io nnaire s, as note d by Co he n et al. (200 0) , can be view e d as rest ric t iv e and leading in their nature , lim it ing inve st igat ion to the co nsc io us mind and perhaps in Ande rso n?s (20 02 ) case to a narro w view of belo nging. It wo uld seem that , fo r a discipline like design wher e many pro po ne nt s debat e in term s of the subco nsc io us (P ev sne r, 1991 ) , quest io nnaire s or mo re open quest io ns are only part of the nece ssary enquiry . Explo ring co nsc io us tho ught is also fraught with the lim ite d fram e of refe re n c e which childre n?s back gro unds arguably im po se . Chapt e r 3 ident ifie d that 1 67 childre n were typic ally using the sam e lo gic and reasoning to explain things, and lo gic is in many way s learnt ofte n fro m the perso n asking the quest io ns (Strauss & Co rbin, 199 0 ) . As an overall princ iple , there fo re, the rese arc h prese nte d in this chapte r aim s to minim ise the use of wo rds by using im age ry of the phy sic al schoo l as a pro vo c at io n of feelings (Harpe r, 2002 ) relat ing to the so cial and cult ural schoo l. Using im ages and sym bo ls, the study ende av o urs to avo id leading the childre n to part ic ular respo nse s recognising that othe rw ise the great e st risk is no t that the childre n say what they think they sho uld say but they s ay what they think yo u want them to say . Altho ugh the childre n are no t direc t ly aske d to explain their cho ic e s in the studie s, in line with Clark (200 5 ) , the studie s are struct ure d to maxim ise anecdo t al and discursive ana ly sis. It is reco gnise d that this rem ains a co nsc io us exerc ise but subco nsc io us relat io nships with the phy sic al schoo l are predic te d to emerge when the result s are co m pare d with childre n?s repo rt s of self- c o nc e pts and the so cial struc t ure in which they sit . 5.1.4.1 Likert Ze ise l (2006 , p.26 6 ) describe s the usual proce ss of apply ing a Like rt attit udinal scale : ?gro ups of stat em e nts are prese nt e d to respo nde nt s fo r them to indic at e the inte nsity of their agre eme nt .? Fo r inst ance , typic ally , as Zeise l indic ate s , there are 5 po ssible attitudes prese nted to a respo nde nt fo r one part ic ular Likert item , encom passing stro ngly agre e , agre e, unce rt ain, disagre e , and stro ngly disagre e . B y apply ing nume ric al value s to the cho ice s made , appraisal is po ssible of overall att it udes. The use of a Like rt scale there fo re require s a decision to be made regarding the num be r of scale cate go rie s, wo rds used, and the num be rs or im ages labe lling the scale (Sm it h & Albaum, 2005 ) . While these can be extende d to 7 po int Like rt scales and beyo nd, t he studie s prese nt e d in this chapt e r will use a 1 to 5 Like rt scale to reco rd the respo nse s of the childre n. It was decide d that a 1 to 5 scale wo uld be suffic ie nt to allo w fo r an appro priate diffe re nt iat io n of respo nses witho ut overcom plic at ing the cho ic e . Im po rt ant co nside rat io n was giv e n to the fact that approx im at e ly half of the childre n wo uld be fiv e or six years old and asking them to diffe re nt iate bey o nd happy and very happy , fo r exam ple , wo uld be exce ssive . F urt he rmo re , rathe r than wo rds - base d use of Like rt , the studie s did no t prese nt stat eme nt s or reque st leve ls of agree me nt . Rathe r, as Like rt item s image s or scenario s were prese nt e d and sym bo ls used to gauge intensit y of posit ive feelings, no t as is tradit io nally the case , attit ude s. In 1 68 this way the studie s atte mpt to avo id the co nsc io us applic at io n of possibly learnt lo gic to childre n?s respo nse s. The sm iley face is a sym bo l which is wide ly used in scho o ls fo r assessm e nt and self asse ssme nt and is gene rally well unde rst oo d by the childre n (TES, 200 9 ) . The sym bo ls are also used in inte rnet or em ail comm unic at io n and text messaging, kno w n as emo t ic o ns, which it is pro po se d giv e ?peo ple a co ncise way in e - m ail and othe r elect ro nic message s of expre ssing sent im e nt s that othe rw ise wo uld be diffic ult to dete c t (Lo ve ring, 2007 ) .? The visual scale fo llow e d the Like rt standard and include d the neutral respo nse; in orde r to avo id a cent ral tende ncy bias, Gree nle af (19 92 ) explains that this is ofte n left out to ensure a po sit ive or negat iv e respo nse in what is know n as the fo rce d cho ic e appro ac h. I n this the sis, ho wev e r, a child?s use of the neut ral respo nse is deem e d to be perfe c t ly valid and by remov ing it actually unde rm ine s the child?s right to neut rality , or indiffe renc e . A study which reve aled wide spre ad apat hy to wards cert ain aspe c t s of the schoo l?s design is an im po rt ant discov ery and co uld well be rev e aling in itse lf; not some t hing to be avo ide d. In addit io n to the po ssibility of central tende nc y bias, McBurney & White (200 9 ) indic at e that the use of the Like rt scale is ofte n crit ic ise d fo r its susce pt ibilit y to acquiesc e nce bias, or agree me nt with stat em e nt s as they are prese nt e d. Furt he rmo re , Gree nle af (19 92 ) highlight s a risk of so cial desirabilit y bias which amount s to an indiv idual pursuing a co urse of po sit ive self - po rt rayal. With regard to acquie sce nce , the studie s were co nst ruc t e d so that childre n are no t res po nding to po sit ive stat em e nt s which were sugge st iv e of a desired lev e l of agre eme nt . These studie s were designe d so that a situat ion, activ it y or objec t was ment io ne d witho ut descript ion and the child was mere ly aske d to po int out which im age best sum s up ho w they feel or perce iv e them se lv e s. In part ic ular quest io ns regarding the childre n?s perce ive d aptit ude were susce pt ible to so cial desirabilit y bias. This co uld be measure d to som e degre e against the respo nse s of the teache r fo r the sam e child but is ce rt ainly a reco gnise d risk inhe rent in the study . Fo r clarity , a dist inc t io n was made betw ee n the sm ile y face s used fo r posit ive and negat ive feelings and the sym bo l used fo r perce pt io ns of behav io ur and ability . Ano t he r establishe d sym bo l in schoo ls is the star, syno ny mo us with achie ve me nt ; this was cho se n using a scale of one star thro ugh to five stars which wo uld refe r to a part ic ularly po sit ive perce pt io n. The use of bo th these sym bo ls is explaine d in Figure 5 - 1 and the respec t iv e rating used in the analy sis describe d late r. 1 69 Whilst it was ackno w le dged that a zero rating link e d to a child?s cho ic e of one star, fo r exam ple , may be co nfusing, this analy sis rating was no t visible to the child during the studie s. Fee l i n gs ab ou t th in gs or situ a t io n s Perce pt i o n s of beh avi ou r or ap t it ud e 0 1 2 3 4 Figure 5-1 Likert Scales used for feelings or perceptions of ability and behaviour, with its associated rating used in the analysis 5.1.4.1.1 A note on the use of Likert in the analysis In this thesis stat ist ic al analy sis is minim ise d to reflec t the nature of the rese arc h which appr o ac he s a relat iv e ly small sam ple size (10 4 children) with whom detaile d qualit at ive indiv idual study was carrie d out. The use of Like rt scales , as Zeise l (20 06 ) and Co he n et al. (200 0 ) po int out, is subje c t to disagre eme nt in the rese arc h comm unit y cent ri ng on whet he r what is esse nt ially an ordinal scale can be treat ed as an inte rv al scale and there fo re be subje c t meaningfully to stat ist ical metho ds . In this thesis the use of the mean of respo nses to differe nt Like rt item s, or indiv idual im age s of schoo ls, fo r exam ple , is used fo r com parat iv e purpo ses describe d late r . To be stat ist ic ally legit im at e , the im po rt ant quest io n is whet he r the diffe re nc e in the childre n?s inte nsit y of feeling betw ee n and , fo r exam ple, is equ iv ale nt to the differe nc e betw ee n and . 1 70 While this is not im me diat ely verifiable , in stat ist ic al term s Fo ste r, Bark us & Yav o rsk y (20 06 ) no te that the item respo nse s sho uld fo llo w a no rm al dist ribut io n to allo w the result s to treate d as int e rv al data, there fo re w arrant ing stat ist ic al atte nt ion. Fo llow ing Fo ste r et al.?s gene rally reco gnise d recom me ndat io n, the use of bo th skew and kurt o sis test s reve al over 90% of the 150 dist ribut io ns gene rat e d by indiv idual items (e.g. im ages) dem o nst rat e the pro pe rtie s of no rm al dist ribut io ns , suppo rt ing the use of mean respo nses with in the analysis. 5.2 The studies 5.2.1 Study 4: Identity cards 5.2.1.1 Description T he Identity Cards study used pho to graphic im age s of the scho o l env iro nm e nt to rev e al which phy sic al aspec t s of the scho o l the childre n ident ify with. It is reco gnise d from Chapt e r 3 and 4 that the signific anc e of the phy sic al schoo l is unlik e ly to be inte rpre t e d by the childre n as pure ly aest he t ic / physic al entit ie s. It is predic te d that a child?s Like rt rating may pro ve to be a judgme nt of the aest he t ic qualit y of the feat ure but it is also antic ipat e d to refle c t overriding feelings or ident ific at io n to wards the hum an laye r, i.e. the so cial or the cult ural schoo l. The pho to graphs were chose n by the rese arc he r and the respec t ive headte ac he rs to prese nt a range of exam ple s of the phy sic al schoo l and were then cate go rise d by their co nt e nt . First ly they were gro upe d unde r the f ollo w ing headings: archit ec ture , furnit ure , obje ct s, comm unic at io n, and deco r. The purpo se of this first cate go risat io n was to asse ss whet he r the children?s belo nging relat e d mo re or less to certain design feat ure s. Fo r exam ple Chapte r 4 sugge st e d that arc hit ec t ure is mo re rem ot e from the child in terms of daily phy sical inte rac t io n. The type of study , rely ing on childre n?s co nce nt rat io n and on av ailabilit y of time , nece ssarily lim it e d the num be r of pho t o graphs which co uld be used and so it was antic ipat e d that the result s wo uld pro v ide suppo rt ing evide nc e rathe r than verific at io n of earlie r findings. Seco ndly each im age was allo c ate d three ratings on a scale of 0 to 3 fo r the aest he t ic / funct io nal , the so cial, and the cult ural nature of the co nt e nt . Chapt e r 3 describe d the lay e ring of message s and meaning thro ugh use and the rele v ance of asso c iat io n in childre n?s relat io nships with the phy sic al scho o l. The aest het ic , cult ural and so cial classific at io n was inte nde d to inv e st igat e these . The play gro und, fo r exa m ple was giv e n the highe st rating of 3 fo r its so cial co nt ent . It was decide d that if the maxim um po ssible sco re was incre ase d to 5 it wo uld prov e too diffic ult to make a 1 71 meaningful dist inc t io n betw e e n 3 and 5, fo r exam ple , im ply ing that a narrow e r scale w as appro priat e . These ratings were validate d by the headt e ac he rs at the relev ant scho o ls. Figure 5-2 Example of Identity Card Image of the logo on the Canopy outside the Year 1/2 classroom (Inset) A furt he r feat ure of the study was to ev aluat e the child?s intim ac y with their (visual) phy sic al env iro nm e nt and there fo re the nature of the pho to graphs was delibe rat e ly obscure to appraise the child?s reco gnit io n of feat ure s. Figure 5 - 2 illust rat es one of the im ages used with the Scho o l S Pandas depic t ing the lo go on the cano py outside their classro om . The inset show s the full cano py but the clo se - up im age was cho se n to appraise the detaile d visual know le dge of the child. Calculat io n of a child?s recognit io n and unde rst anding is describe d in Appe ndix 8 . T he proce ss was rev ie w e d afte r fo ur childre n had take n part and , base d on general obse rv at io ns of co nce nt rat io n, it was decide d that twent y pho to graphs was appro x im at e ly the right amo unt to enable a range of im age s to be used witho ut lo sing the child?s inte re st and atte nt io n. It was also im po rt ant to be able to com ple te the study within a manage able ti m e fram e which, in pract ice , too k place acro ss two or thre e schoo l day s with each class. The pho to graphs alo ng with their cate go risat io n are sho w n in full in Appe ndix 7 . 1 72 Remem be ring that this study was designe d to asse ss a child?s sense of belo nging, it ne eds reit e rat io n that the basis for this asse ssm e nt is visual. Many , including Ferre ira, Mota & Po ns (200 1) , argue that the sense of sight is the mo st crit ic al to the hum an specie s with signific ant ly mo re of the brain?s pro ce ssing capac it y allo c at e d to it. In addit io n, loo king at im age s pote nt ially elicit s respo nse s base d on the so unds or the text ure s asso c iat e d with what the childre n are view ing: ?In a glance we perce ive a who le set of charac t e rist ic s of an obje ct : its dist anc e , its motio n, its co lo ur, its shape , its size , its text ure , its bright ne ss and its transpare nc y (Ferre ira et al., 200 1 , p.2 5) .? Ho wev e r, it is reco gnise d that , with time av ailable , the study co uld be repeat e d to dire ct ly quest io n each of the senses using text ure s, so unds or sm ells from aro und the scho o l. It is also acknow le dge d there fo re that this study will pro bably no t return a true pict ure of belo nging fo r a visually im paire d child. Rev iew ing ho w well childre n gene rally respo nd to and co pe with the study was an im port ant part of the assessm e nt . 5.2.1.2 Informing research T he use of im agery in this way is a fo rm of visual ethno graphy calle d pho to elicitat io n and which Harpe r (20 02 , p.1 3 ) claim s ?evo k es info rm at io n, feelings, and memo ries that are due to the pho t o graph?s part ic ular fo rm of repre se nt at io n.? He argue s furt he r that , ?the photo elicit at io n inte rv iew seem s like no t sim ply an inte rv ie w proce ss that elicit s mo re info rmat io n bu t rathe r one that ev ok e s a diffe re nt kind of info rm at io n (p.1 3) .? Harpe r (20 02 ) dete rm in e s that using visual im age s in rese arc h uses a great e r capac ity of the brain than verbal m etho ds and co nse que nt ly reache s deepe r into the hum an co nsc io usne ss. This is a cent ral co nce rn give n the stat e d lim it at io ns of prev io us co nsc io us studie s. He co ncurs gene rally with Berge r (199 2) who explains the relat io nsh ip betwe e n pho t o graphs and memo ry: Mem o ry is a strange faculty . The sharpe r and mo re iso lat e d the stim ulus memo ry rece ive s, the mo re it rem em be rs; the mo re co m pre he nsive the stim ulus, the less it rem em be rs. This is perhaps why black - and - w hit e pho t o graphy i s parado x ic ally mo re evo cat iv e than co lo ur pho t o graphy . It stim ulate s a fast e r onrush of memo ries because less has been give n, mo re has been left out? (pp.19 2 - 9 3 ) . 1 73 Conside ring the bro ade r field of visual eth no graphy , Pink (20 07 ) describe s the stim ulat io n of the subse que nt co nve rsat io n betwe e n ethno graphe r and inte rv iew ee , dev e lo ping diffe re nt perspe c t iv e s of reality . This aspe c t of the rese arc h metho d was no t an esse nt ial feat u re of the study altho ugh the esse nce of these discussio ns was reco rde d as anecdo tal material and there is evide nce of how im age s can be perce iv e d in diffe re nt way s. This is describe d in Sect io n 5.6 and is esse nt ially an im po rt ant conside rat io n in ho w indiv idual childre n can perce iv e the sam e aspe c t s of the phy sic al schoo l in diffe re nt way s. 5.2.1.3 Standardised instructions T he study was carrie d out with on e child at a time and separat e ly from the rest of the class. This was to minim ise the po te ntial fo r a child?s respo nses to be influe nc e d, info rme d by perce iv e d lim it at io ns of prev io us studie s. It was explaine d to each child that the purpo se of the study wa s to find out how they feel about diffe re nt part s of the scho o l, witho ut giv ing exam ple s or presc ribing what is meant by feelings, bey o nd the sm iley face d im age s illust rat e d in Figure 5 - 1 . The study was carrie d out as info rm ally as po ssible and it was reinfo rc e d with the childre n that their feelings were im po rt ant and that there were no t any right answ e rs. The five sm iley face s, illust rat e d in Figure 5 - 1 , were prese nt e d on cards and line d up on the table; the pho to graphs were intro duc e d to the child one at a time . First of all they were aske d if they reco gnise d the pho to graph. This was aske d casually and reco rde d slight ly late r than the answ e r was give n in orde r to minim ise its perce iv e d im po rt anc e and to avo id the child feeling that they had faile d a test if they did no t re co gnise it. If the im age repre se nt e d an obje c t with a part ic ular meaning or funct io n it was also reco rde d if the child expre sse d an unde rst anding of this. Once the childre n knew that it was a study which invo lv e d im age s fro m aro und the scho o l, as a rule th ey did no t need to be aske d to try to ident ify them . At this po int , if the im age had no t been reco gnise d, it was describe d in a matt e r of fact manne r in orde r no t to indic at e any feelings the autho r had towards it. The child was then aske d to po int to the face which best describe d the way they felt abo ut it. The cho se n face was recorde d on a piece of pape r quit e openly alo ng with any comm e nt s or co nve rsat io n which fo llo wed. The child was aske d fo r their perm issio n fo r the comm e nt to be no te d do wn, explainin g that what they said was inte rest ing but wo uld pro bably be fo rgo t te n if it was not reco rde d. 1 74 5.2.1.4 Calculating belonging T he results of the Ident ity Card study pro v ide d the basis from which to calculat e a measure of belo nging fo r each child. The belo nging measu re is deriv e d from the indiv idual?s cum ulat iv e respo nses to the pho to graphs. This was then com pare d with the maxim um possible sco re and init ially show n as a perce ntage . Take fo r exam ple the im age of the Schoo l S Co de , show n in Figure 5 - 3 , which outline s the schoo l rule s and is place d in the hall. Figure 5-3 The School S Code Be t h co uld respo nd to the im age by cho osing the face link e d to a rating of 2 on the Like rt scale , as sho w n in Figure 5 - 4 . This wo uld repre se nt her ident ificat io n with the Schoo l S Co de which is indic at e d as 2 out of a po ssible 4 or, as Figure 5 - 4 explains, 50%. 0 1 2 3 4 0% 2 5 % 50% 75% 100% Figure 5-4 Example: Beth?s Likert Scale Selection for the School S Code 1 75 If, fo r exam ple , a child?s ident ific at io n with fiv e im age s is 50%, 75%, 75%, 100% and 25%, their overall measure of belo nging is calculat e d as the mean of these , i.e. 65%. 5.2.1.5 Calculating social, cultural and functional/aesthetic belonging In Sect io n 5.1 .5 .1 , the rating of pict ure s base d on their so cial, cult ural, and aest het ic co nt e nt was describe d. These ratings, validat e d by the head teache rs, were used to ind ic ate belo nging in relat io n to the phy sic al and hum an laye rs of design. Taking the exam ple of the Scho o l S Co de of Co nduc t , this was rate d on a scale of 0 to 3 as Figure 5 - 5 sho ws. 3 Cultural 2 Social 1 Functional/Aesthetic Figure 5-5 Rating of the School S Code - Cultural, social and functional/aesthetic T he belo nging calculat io n can there fo re be split into belo nging to the cult ural scho o l, the social schoo l and the funct io nal/ ae st he t ic scho o l. Appe ndix 8 ou tline s how this is calculat e d. Many of the im age s used were specific to each class and there fo re com pariso n betwe e n classe s and, in part ic ular scho o ls, neede d to be care fully co nside re d. To com pare a child?s sense of belo nging of 62.5 % in the Scho o l A Turt le s with a child with a sense of belo nging of 83% in the Scho o l S Pandas is tenuo us and subje c t to crit ic ism . Fo r this reaso n, the class result s are prese nte d as an inde x for intra- c lass co m pariso n. The mean belo nging fo r any of the classe s, there fo re , is give n as 100 and the childre n?s result s are show n in relat io n to this mean. It is then po ssible to show the ra nge of result s and the result s of part ic ular gro ups like boy s and girls, year 1 and year 2, and make com pariso ns class by class. Calculat io n of this inde x is also illust rate d in Appe ndix 8 . 5.2.2 Study 5: Class social maps 5.2.2.1 Description T he obje c t iv e of the study was to create a so cial map of the class indic at ing where childre n are po sit io ne d within the class so cial circle and what types of relat io nships are prev ale nt . The po sit io n of the child relat e s to bo th cent rality , i.e. ho w po pular they are with the othe r childre n, and mem be rship of any clique s which may exist . Clique s fall into the bro ade r analy sis of the type s of relat io nships such as clo se frie ndships, relat io nships which sho w mutual disinc linat io n and 1 76 unre c ipro c ate d frie ndships. This study will pro v ide a so cial co nte x t with which to evaluat e the childre n?s identity card respo nse s. It was antic ipat e d that the Year 1/2 classe s wo uld be less quest io ning abo ut why they were com ple t ing these maps and that Year 5/6 wo uld require a mo re co ncre t e purpo se fo r the study . In realit y , the prece ding studie s and tim e spent with the class were esse nt ial fo r building trust . This trust , in addit io n to the leading ro le of the teache r in the exerc ise as som eo ne they kno w well, enable d the study to t ake place witho ut any issue s. 5.2.2.2 Informing studies So c ial netwo rk analy sis is a rese arc h metho d which allo w s many diffe re nt aspe c ts of a so cial netwo rk to be establishe d; Kno ke & Kuklinsk i (19 82 ) ident ify the analy sis of pers onal relat io nships, financ ial transac t io ns, co mm unic at io n, inte rac t io n and mov em e nt as som e of the po ssible mo tivat io ns. The analy sis prese nt e d here is a less com ple x, or one- m o de , fo rm so le ly inte re ste d in the po pularit y of the childre n within their class peer netw o rk . Wasse rm an & Faust (1 99 4 ) describe: ?In the standard so ciom e t ric data design, a num be r of acto rs are prese nt e d with a list of the nam es of othe r peo ple in the acto r set, and aske d to rate each othe r per so n in term s of ho w much they ?lik e? that perso n (p.3 6 ) .? It is no te d that effo rt s to establish stars and isolates within so cial netwo rk s hav e an establishe d tradit io n (Mo re no , 1934 ) altho ugh it is claim e d that such social netwo rk rese arc h metho ds has only rare ly been applied with childre n ( Sanso n, F inch, Matjac ic & Kenne dy , 1998 ) . Ov erall, Ro dk in & Hanish (20 07 ) argue that placing childre n in the cent re of their so cial syste m, as this study pro pose s, is a powe rful metho d fo r unde rstanding childre n?s so cial realit y . 5.2.2.3 Standardised instructions T he so cial mapping pro ce ss require d each child to place the name s of all the childre n in their class on an A3 map which sho wed the childre n they feel the clo se st to and the childre n they feel the least clo se to . Figure 5 - 6 replic ate s the A3 page of co nce nt ric circles each of which co nt ains smalle r circle s. The num be rs sho w n in the circle s were no t on the page s giv e n to the childre n but, as will be describe d, we re used to rate the clo se ne ss of the relatio nships. 1 77 An empty map was give n to every mem be r of the class. At the cent re of the map they were aske d to writ e their name and then in the adjo ining fo ur smalle r circle s to writ e the nam e s of the fo ur childre n wh o they felt were mo st im po rt ant to them . Sim ilarly mo v ing out from the cent re to the next ring they were aske d to writ e the nam e s of the childre n who were im po rtant to them but no t quit e as much as the first fo ur. This co nt inue d until they had fille d in th e name s in the oute r circle s which repre se nte d the childre n who they felt they were least clo se to . Figure 5-6 Example of social chart completed by each child and the numerical rating associated with each position T he study was carrie d out as a class with the assist anc e of teache rs and learning assist ant s. Occasio nally it was co m plet e d on a one - to - o ne basis if a child had misse d the class exerc ise or there was a po ssibility that the child might be disrupt i ve during the study . A high degre e of sensit iv it y is require d fo r this type of study the wo rding of the intro duc t io n must be care fully co nside re d. Keeping an eye on the childre n?s behav io ur whilst they are com ple t ing their maps is equally im po rt ant . Finally , if a child did no t wish to take part they were not fo rce d to do so and incom ple te maps were acce pt able and manage d in the analy sis pro cess. 1 78 5.2.2.4 Limitations It is ackno w le dge d that this study pro v ides a snapsho t of the class relat io nships which is depe nde nt to a degre e on the circum st ance s on the day of the study . Fo r exam ple two childre n who are no rm ally go o d friends may have had an argum e nt in the play gro und just before they com ple te d their so cial maps. There is also the risk of childre n?s respo nse s being influe nc e d either dire c t ly or indirec t ly by othe r childre n. One child may be loo king over the sho ulde r of anot he r child to see where their nam e is on that child?s map. They may be asking or even telling the child where to place nam es. It is also po ssible t hat the child will subco nsc io usly add the childre n who are sitt ing clo se st . There is also the fact o r of gende r which may sto p childre n putting so meo ne fro m the oppo sit e sex in as one of their clo se st frie nds in a public arena. The studie s in Chapt e r 3 and 4 indic at e that som e form of gende r div ide wo uld be expec t e d. Ho wev e r, it was antic ipat ed that the main effec t of bo th the day ?s circum st ances and influe nc e fro m othe r childre n wo uld be mo st ly lim it e d to the swit c hing of the indiv iduals ident ifie d as the m ost im po rt ant with tho se ident ifie d as the next mo st im po rt ant . 5.2.2.5 Developing a class social map W it h a map from each child, an ov erall pict ure of the class so cial netwo rk was obtaine d by aggre gat ing each child?s respo nse s. Appe ndix 9 details ho w each child? s so cial posit io n is calculat e d and ho w social circle s fo r each class have been dev ise d so that they are dire c t ly com parable irre spe c t iv e of the num be r of childre n in each class. The maxim um possible radius of any so cial circle is 30 which wo uld repre se nt a child who is rate d 1 by every child in the cent re and a child who is rate d 4 by every child on the oute r edge. If one class? social circle is 9.4 and ano t he r?s is 10.4 , this indicat e s that the least cent ral child is furt he r out and it is po te nt ially a le ss so cially inclusive class. Howe ve r, unde rst anding ho w the othe r childre n are dist ribut e d within each so cial circle is necessary to unde rstand the true pict ure . 5.2.2.6 Graphical representation Graphic al repre se nt at io n of the so cial circle is useful fo r com parat i v e purpose s. The metho d used, and which is applie d thro ugho ut the analy sis of the result s, is to split the class into thirds. If, fo r exam ple , the class so cial circle is calculat e d to have a radius of 12, a perfe c t ly evenly dist ribute d class will mean that the cent ral third of the class will occupy a so cial circle of radius 4, i.e. 12/3 . Adding the middle third of the class will create a so cial circle of radius 8, i.e. 12 x 2/3 (See Figure 5 - 7 ). 1 79 Figure 5-7 Graphical representation of class social circle ? splitting into thirds So far this is pure ly a theo re t ic al repre se nt at io n of a class in which it is ass ume d that som e childre n are mo re so cially cent ral than othe rs. This will be show n to be a realist ic assum pt io n of ho w classe s wo rk in pract ice and it will be seen that the scenario where childre n are all equally cent ral is no t an accurat e po rt ray al. Break ing the circle up into equal thirds, measure d along the radius, will be used to sho w ho w the childre n are dist ribute d within this circle . As well as sho w ing classe s which are evenly spre ad it will also indic at e classe s with very stro ng so cial cent res and iso lat io n where it occurs. The thre e part s of the circle will be refe rre d to thro ugho ut as the cent ral, middle , and oute r circle s. Earlie r it was sugge st e d that a degree of gende r div ide in the class so cial circle should be expe c te d. There fo re , graphic al repre se nt at io n will also be used to prese nt the so cial circle s separat e ly fo r girls and bo ys. A repre se nt at io n of the girls? social circle , fo r exam ple , wo uld inc lude bo th bo y s and girls but wo uld be base d only on the maps which the girls had pro duc e d. This circle wo uld inv ariably vary in size from the overall class circle and indic ate im po rt ant diffe re nc e s in the way girls inte rac t so cially . Equally it is antic ipat e d that the bo y s? so cial circle co uld rev e al charac te rist ics part ic ular to bo y s. 5.2.2.7 Assessing relationships T he so cial mapping pro ce ss allo ws an asse ssm e nt of the type s of relat io nships exist ing in the class. Com paring Sim o n and Lucy once mo re , their respe c t ive ratings fo r one anot he r show n in Table 5 - 1 indic ate the types of relat io nship they may hav e . 1 80 Sim o n Lucy 1 1 Clo se mutual frie ndship 4 4 Mutual disinc linat io n 1 3/4 Unre c ipro c at e d frie ndship Table 5-1 Relationship types based upon Simon and Lucy's respective ratings of each other Asse ssing the num be r of these type s of relat io nships acro ss the who le class and in which third of the circle they occur prov ide s anot he r too l fo r ev aluat ing the so cial co nt ex t of the class. Refe rring to a scenario in which Sim o n place s Lucy in a circle with a fo ur rating and Lucy recipro c at e s by also placing Sim o n in a fo ur- rat e d circle , this is referre d to as a mutual disinc linat io n. It is po ssible that this relat io nship is antago nist ic and inv o lv e s dislik e but, equally , it co uld mere ly repre se nt disint e re st . Fo r this reaso n a neut ral term is used. Finally it is reve aling to lo ok at whet her Simo n and Lucy ?s ratings of each othe r match, irre spec t iv e of whet he r they indic at e po sit iv e or negat ive relat io nships. Where a child allo c ate d a two , fo r exam ple , to ano t he r child and that child also gave them a two , there is a match in ho w bo th childre n perce iv e their relat io nship with each othe r. Lo oking at ho w many matche s there are for a child is an indic ato r of how so cially aware each child is. This can also be viewe d in relat io n to the child?s so cial po sit io n and used to com pare the class as a who le with othe r classe s. 5.2.3 Study 6: Good bad happy sad 5.2.3.1 Description T he obje c t iv e of Good Bad Happy Sad is to unde rst and childre n?s posit ive , negat ive or neut ral feelings at schoo l in diffe rent situat io ns and in relat ion to diffe re nt aspe c ts of learning and their gene ral scho o l experie nc e; earlie r chapte rs hav e predic t e d that well - be ing at scho o l is dire ct e d to wards co nce rns of behavio ur and achiev em e nt , fo r exam ple . The study evaluate s academ ic and behav io ural self- co nc e pts which co uld then be related to the child?s social po sit io n and their respo nses to the phy sic al sc ho o l in the identity cards study . These acade m ic and behav io ural respo nses of the childre n are also co m pare d with the teache r?s perce pt io ns of each child to gauge ho w clo se ly relate d these perce pt io ns are. 1 81 For each child the fo llo w ing measure s were reco rde d against the Like rt scale prev io usly sho w n in Figure 5 - 1 : ? P e rce pt io n of abilit y (child) ? P e rce pt io n of behav io ur (child) ? Happine ss learning ? Happine ss aro und scho o l ? P e rce pt io n of abilit y (teac he r) ? i.e. teache r?s perce pt io n of the child?s abilit y ? P e rce pt io n of behav io ur (teac he r) ? i.e. teache r?s perce pt io n of the child?s behav io ur 5.2.3.2 Standardised instructions T he study was co m ple t e d indiv iduall y with each child. The purpo se of the study was explaine d verbally . The child was prese nt e d with a serie s of schoo l subje ct s (lit e racy , num e rac y , fo r exam ple ) and situat io ns or lo cat io ns (play gro und, lunch) . Fo r each they were asked which sym bo l best descr ibe d their feelings or tho ught s abo ut these subje c t s or situat io ns/ plac es. The fiv e po int Like rt scale illust rate d in Figure 5 - 1 was used with the sm i ley face s fo r expresse d happine ss and the stars were used for perce ive d abilit y or behav io ur. The study was carrie d out twice , once asking the child ho w go o d they think they are at each, eithe r in term s of behav io ur or ability , depe nding on the describe d s ituat io n, and the seco nd time asking ho w happy the child feels in each situat io n or whilst do ing each activ ity . 1 82 Figure 5-8 Good, Bad, Happy, Sad - completed ability/behaviour page T he study was co m ple t e d using a Po we rPo int slide on a lapt o p and the ico ns were dragge d and dro ppe d acco rding to the child?s respo nse s, ofte n by the child them se lv es. This is illust rat e d in Figure 5 - 8 . Thro ugho ut the study any anecdo t al ev ide nc e or explanat io ns offe re d by the child were writt e n do wn with the co nse nt of the child. This was carrie d out as the last study because it is recognise d that cert ain childre n will need to hav e built up a degree of trus t with the inte rv ie w er in orde r to avo id issue s of acquie sc e nc e (McBurney & White , 200 9 ) . 1 83 5.3 Describing the classes ? Year 5 and 6 T his sect io n will discuss the nature of the so cial circle s fo r both Year 5/6 classe s and the relat io nships which are ev ide nt within these social circle s. It will then go on to conside r these findings in relat io n to childre n?s belo nging and their self- c o nce pt s relat ing to the cult ural co nt ex t of scho o l. The Year 5 & 6 result s are include d in full in this chapt e r and refe r to Year 1 & 2 results where relev ant . The thesis is inte re st e d in ho w the cult ure exert s itse lf on indiv iduals and there fo re the Year 5 & 6 result s are mo st relev ant fo r this evaluat io n. The full appraisal of the Year 1 & 2 findings is include d in Appe ndix 10 . 5.3.1 School S: Year 5 (Barracudas) 5.3.1.1 The social circle Figure 5-9 School S Year 5 Social Circle T he size of the Barrac udas? circle sho w n in Figure 5 - 9 is 17.1 which is much wide r than eithe r of the Year 1/2 classe s. If the ratings fo r the cent ral child remaine d unchange d the maxim um po ssible size of the social circle wo uld be 19.8 . This appe ars to be a phenome no n relat e d to age and the po larisat io n of relat io nships. In this exam ple the large so cial circle is indicat iv e of two no tably iso lat e d bo y s . It is appare nt in Figure 5 - 9 that the middle and the cent re of the social circle is co m pre sse d com pare d with both the younge r classe s and co nside rab le wide ning occurs in the oute r so cial 1 84 circle . The circle repre se nt s an am algam at io n of the girls? and the bo ys? so cial circle s and Figure 5 - 10 illust rate s that gende r is again a key dete rm inant of the overall circle . Figure 5-10 School S Year 5 Social Circle ? by gender Com paring the size of the so cial circle s by gende r, the girls? circle is 23.3 in radius where 23.3 is the po sit io n of the child, a bo y , mo st dist ant from the cent re . The next mo st outer bo y is at 21.0 . The size of the girls? circle is predom inant ly the pro duc t of the ratings give n to the childre n in the oute r third which suggest s that the girls in this class are mo re discrim inat ing to wards the least po pular childre n. The so cial circle acco rding to the boy s is only marginally wide r than the overall class circle (17 .5) . The boy s are less discrim inat ing beyo nd their clo se frie ndships. The bo y s? social cent re is very tight ly knit, with the size of the cent ral circle being 3.8 com pare d with the girls at 4.9 . So , in the Barrac udas, it is feasible that boy s tend to fo cus on the childre n they like whilst the girls are perhaps mo re fo cuse d on the c hildre n they dislike . Howe ve r, the oute rmo st two childre n in the bo y s? circle are in fact bo ys which, sim ilar to the othe r classe s, sugge st that bo y s are mo re willing to reje ct othe r bo ys. View ing the cum ulat iv e effe c t on the class circle, the so cial circle is sm alle r because the high and lo w ratings are spre ad mo re wide ly over all the childre n in the class, but the cent re and middle hav e becom e highly fo cused. This sugge st s that even tho ugh the bo y s gene rally prio rit ise boy s 1 85 and the girls gene rally priorit ise girls, within this there is agre eme nt acro ss gender as to who are the mo st and least po pular childre n, pro duc ing a relat iv e ly wide oute r circle . The yo unge r Pandas at Scho o l S illust rate d a less define d versio n of the same effec t . 5.3.1.2 Relationships Ac ro ss the who le class, each child on average has a recipro c ate d clo se frie ndship with 2.6 childre n. This is 3.4 in the cent ral circle , reduc ing marginally to 3.1 in the mid circle and 1.1 per child in the oute r circle . This suppo rt s the co nclusio n of the stro ng yet exclusiv e nature of the so cial class and is co nsist e nt fo r boy s and girls. These figure s are co nside rably great e r than eithe r of the Year 1/2 classe s po int ing to the inte nsify ing of the social dynam ic with age. A sim ilar incre ase is also evide nt in the num be r of relat io nships which the children matche d : on average 9.6 of their relat ionships repre se nt ing 36% of the 27 relat io nships they hav e in the class. In the so cial cent re this incre ase s to 11.3 (42 % ) decreasing to 6.4 (24 %) . The highe st num be r of relat io nships matche d was 59% (bo y ); the lowe st was 15% (girls) . On av erage , a child in the Barrac udas class will hav e 1.5 mutual disinc linat io ns which incre ase signific ant ly over the social circle: this figure is 0.3 in the cent ral c ircle, 1.6 in the mid circle and 2.6 in the oute r social circle . This sugge st s a gro w ing so cial antago nism as the childre n get olde r. The low figure in the cent re in co njunc t io n with its relat iv e ly co nde nse d charac ter wo uld suggest a stro ng and harmo nio us cent re , which is po te nt ially clique y and exclusive in nature. 1 86 5.3.2 School A: Year 5 and 6 (Class 3) 5.3.2.1 The social circle Figure 5-11 School A Year 5 & 6 Social Circle T he size of the Class 3 circle is 15.8 , sh o w n in Figure 5 - 1 1 , which is again much wide r than eithe r of the Year 1/2 classe s but sm alle r than Scho o l S Year 5. Rem inisce nt of the Barrac udas, the oute r sect io n of the class circle is stre t c he d and indic at es the mo re exclusiv e nature of the olde r classe s. Ho wev e r, co m pare d with the Barrac udas the cent re is mo re relaxe d and it is the middle circle in this case which is part ic ularly tight . In com mo n with the othe r classe s, the girls? social circle is much wide r again (22 .1 ) . Tho ugh slight ly sm alle r, it sho w s a very sim ilar patt e rn to the Scho o l S Year 5 girls? circle ; here the oute r circle is stret c he d to repre se nt approx im at e ly one half of the who le . Altho ugh the bo y s? so cial circle is also relat iv e ly wide (20 .2 ) , it is very evenly distribut e d and sugge st s a mo re relaxe d class with fewe r inte nse relat io nships. The com parat ive diffe re nc e s are illust rat e d in Figure 5 - 12 . 1 87 Figure 5-12 School A Year 5 & 6 Social Circle ? by gender 5.3.2.2 Relationships T he relat io nships in the class co rro bo rat e the view that overall it is mo re relaxe d in its so cial nature , part ic ularly with regard to the so cial cent re . Each child on average has a recipro c at e d clo se frie ndship with 1.9 childre n made up of 2.4 in the cent ral circle and reduc ing marginally to 2.1 in the mid circl e and 1.1 per child in the outer circle . Boy s hav e a slight ly lowe r num be r. On av erage childre n in the class matche d 34% of the 29 relat io nships they each hav e in the class. In the cent re this incre ase s to 12.7 (44% ) and decre asing to 7 (24% ) in the oute r circle . These figure s are very clo se to Scho o l S and sim ilarly the most central boy s sho w the highe st figure s. On av erage , a child in Class 3 will have 1.5 mutual disinc linat io ns. With a highe r num be r in the cent re and lowe r num be r in the oute r circle , co m pared with the Schoo l S Barrac udas, a slight ly less ceme nt e d so cial nature of the class is appare nt . 5.4 Year 5 & 6: Social position Be t we e n the yo unge r and the olde r classe s, the so cial circle becom es stre t c he d, i.e. childre n on the edge of the circle becom e mo re rem ot e . This is a co nsiste nt feat ure which appe ars to exist irre spe c t iv e of socio - c ult ural back gro und. In both scho o ls the cent re and the middle circle s rem ain sim ilar in size and there fore it can be co nside re d a phenom e no n of social exclusio n. 1 88 For childre n on the edge of the so cial circle , the po sit io n of the child can becom e unte nable . Fo r exam ple , Danie l on the edge of the Schoo l S Year 5 circle was exclude d as behav io ural pro ble m s became unmanage able and the seco nd oute rmo st child event ually enro ll e d in a diffe re nt seco ndary schoo l from the rest of his classm at es. Rev ie w ing the relat io nship betw ee n the Good Bad Happy Sad study and the older childre n?s so cial po sit io ns indic at es greate r co nsiste nc y betwe e n the scho o ls, co m pare d with the yo unge r clas se s. Init ially co nside ring girls, tho se who are judge d by the teache r to behav e well are no tably mo re so cially cent ral. This is mo st clear at Scho o l S, as illust rat e d in Figure 5 - 13 , which sho w s a link betw ee n the teache r?s high perce pt io ns of ability and behav io ur and social cent ralit y . This include s judgm e nt s made abo ut which abilit y gro up the child is in. In Scho o l A, it is mo st evide nt that for a girl po pularit y is linke d with medium perce pt io ns of ability . In both scho o ls, a girl who is no t perce iv e d by the teache r to be of lo w abilit y or is no t in the lo west learning gro up will be mo re so cially cent ral. This sugge st s that girls? own perce pt io ns can be a facto r in their so cial po sit io ns and in Scho o l A it is so cially adv ant ageo us to be average ( Figure 5 - 1 4 ) . Ho we v er, in com pariso n with Year 1 & 2 girls, Figure 5-13 School S Year 5 girls - School context measures related to the social circle 1 89 the perce pt io ns of the teache r are mo re em phat ic ally linke d to the girls? po pularit y and it is no table that childre n may well be using the teacher?s judgm e nt s to fo rm their own social cho ic e s. The diffe re nc e in the im pact of the girls? perce pt io ns and the teache rs? wo uld also im ply that childre n inte rpre t their scho o l expe rie nc e diffe re nt ly fro m adult s. The boy s? result s atte st to the influe nc e of the teache r on their so cial po sit io n to an even greate r degre e . If they perce iv e their own ability to be high, co ncur re nt ly they tend to be mo re po pular. This is very appare nt in Scho o l A, sho w n in Figure 5 - 15, which indic ate s a co nt rast with the boy s in the yo unge r Scho o l A class who sho we d an oppo site link to what might be co nside re d cult urally desirable dispo sit io ns. It is also at odds with som e of the mo re rebe llio us com ment s made by the bo y s in the prev io u s conscious studie s. Figure 5-14 School A Year 5 & 6 girls - School context measures related to the social circle 1 90 In Scho o l S, which has been sho w n to be a mo re socially inte nse class, Figure 5 - 16 indic at es the im po rt ant link be twe e n the boy s? po pularit y and the teache r?s perce pt io n of them . Mo st reso unding is if the teache r perce iv e s the bo y to behav e well, or do es no t perce iv e them to be of lo w ability . The link betwe en po pularit y and being in the highe st gro up is also ev ide nt . Figure 5-16 School S Year 5 boys - School context measures related to the social circle Figure 5-15 School A Year 5 & 6 boys - School context measures related to the social circle 1 91 These im pact s are predo m inant ly how bo y s judge eac h othe r and girls judge each othe r socially as quit e dist inc t so cial circle s base d on gende r illust rat e d. In Scho o l S, howev e r, girls also favo ur boy s in the highe r learning gro ups. The GDBD study in Chapt e r 3 sugge st e d that co ndit io ning and the use of asp e c t s of the mate rial schoo l to suppo rt this was an obje ct ive , part ic ularly disce rnible in the Year 1 and 2 childre n?s respo nses in Scho o l A. Where a varie t y of co nclusio ns co uld be reache d relat ing to a child?s po pularit y in Year 1 & 2, by the latt e r stage s of prim ary scho o l this rese arc h finds that childre n?s so cial stat us is depe nde nt on how they fit into the scho o l cult ure , perso nifie d by the teache r. 5.5 Year 5 and 6 belonging 5.5.1 Gender and age Com mo n acro ss bo th classe s is that girls demo nst rat e a marginally highe r belo nging than bo y s. Ho wev e r, the studie s in Chapt e r 3 and 4 highlight e d disaffe c t io n fr o m a num be r of the Year 6 bo y s at Scho o l A which is evide nc e d in their lo we r belo nging. The Year 1 and 2 classe s also demo nst rate d that either Year 1 boy s an d Year 2 girls, or Year 2 boy s and Year 1 girls wo uld exhibit the highe st belo nging. In Class 3 the same patte rn is fo und where by the Year 5 boy s and the Year 6 girls sho w the great e st belo nging. This indicat e s the exist e nc e of a balanc e of belo nging estab lishe d betwe e n the sam e gende r base d on age and recipro c it y with the oppo sit e sex. Figure 5-17 Belonging Index for School S Yr 5 girls shown for those with high, medium and low belonging broken down by cultural, aesthetic/functional and social physical aspects of school 1 92 Figure 5-18 Belonging Index for School A Yr 5 & 6 girls shown for those with high, medium and low belonging broken down by cultural, aesthetic/functional and social physical aspects of school In Figure 5 - 17 i t can be seen that Scho o l S Year 5 girls exhibit ing high belo nging no tice ably prio rit ise social eleme nt s of the phy sic al scho o l. As belo nging decline s po sit iv e ident ific at io n with elem e nt s of cult ural signific anc e incre ase s. It is also clear that inanim ate obje ct s becom e mo re im po rt ant to a child?s belonging fo r girls at Schoo l S who exhibit low belo nging. In Scho o l A, whet he r the child exhibit s high, medium or lo w belo nging, the relat iv e im port anc e of phy sic al eleme nt s with cultural signific anc e is co nsist ent . On the othe r hand, the relat ive im po rt anc e of so cial feat ure s incre ase s as belo nging decline s. Show n in Figure 5 - 1 8 , this is co nsiste nt with the Schoo l A Year 1 & 2 class altho ugh, unlik e the Year 1 & 2 girls, girls in Year 5 & 6 do no t show a relat iv e incre ase in the im po rt ance of aest het ic/ funct io nal feature s. 1 93 Figure 5-19 Belonging Index for School S Yr 5 boys shown for those with high, medium and low belonging broken down by cultural, aesthetic/functional and social physical aspects of school Figure 5-20 Belonging Index for School A Yr 5 & 6 boys shown for those with high, medium and low belonging broken down by cultural, aesthetic/functional and social physical aspects of school Y e ar 5 boy s at Scho o l S verify the asse rt io n of the so cial nature of the class by exhibit ing belo nging which is biase d towards social feat ure s of the scho o l (S ee Figure 5 - 19 ) . Despite a slight incre ase of feat ure s of cult ural significanc e fo r medium belo nging bo y s, the ov erall balanc e betwe e n the thre e cate go rie s is large ly maint aine d. At Schoo l A a fall in belo nging, sho w n i n Figure 5 - 2 0 , appe ar s to be assoc iat e d with an incre ase in the relat ive im po rt ance of cult ural feat ure s at the expe nse of aest he t ic / func t io nal elem e nt s which then is rev e rse d in favo ur of the aest het i c / funct io nal. Relat iv e ly , po sit ive ident ificat io n with so cial feat ure s is esse nt ially unchange d which is co nsist e nt with the boy s in Scho o l S despit e being less signific ant on the who le . 1 94 5.5.2 Belonging and social position Figure 5-21 Belonging Index in relation to girls? and boys? social positions - Year 5 & 6 In Year 5 and 6, belo nging is gene rally linke d to the child?s so cial po sit io n as it was fo r Year 1 and 2. Howev e r, while in thre e out of the fo ur social circles belo nging is highe st in the social cent re , Figure 5 - 21 sho w s that the result s are less extrem e than Year 1 and 2. This is despit e the prev io usly describe d inte nsific at io n of the so cial charac t e r of the olde r classe s and indic at e s that po pularit y with peers is perhaps less signific ant; othe r fact o rs seem to becom e rele v ant to belo nging, including the influe nc e of the teache r. Co nside ring belo nging at an indiv idual leve l, fo r the mo st iso late d boy s in the Barrac udas belo nging is relat ive ly high (112 and 100 ) and the so cial com po ne nt of their belonging signific ant ly highe r at 122 and 111 respe c t ive ly . This is co nsist e nt with one of the boy s in Scho o l A Class 3 altho ugh othe r mo re iso late d childre n demo nst rate the oppo sit e . It is no tice able there fo re that expre sse d belo nging is mo re extrem e and varie d in the oute r circle but it is also an indic at io n that so cially iso lat e d childre n may well be perfe ct ly happy fro m a so cial perspe ct ive . This vindic at es the co nside rat io n of othe r fact o rs in belo nging and dire c t s the discussio n of inclusio n away from peer gro up po pularit y . 1 95 5.5.3 Behaviour E arlie r the rele v ance of perce pt io ns of behav io ur to social po sit i o n was describe d. The evide nce fro m the class sugge st s that whet he r it is the child?s perce iv e d behav io ur, or the teache r?s perce pt io n of the child, the im pac t on belo nging to the phy sic al schoo l is mark e d. Figure 5-22 Belonging Index based on child's perception of behaviour (High, medium and low) Year 5 & 6 T his relat io nship is sho w n in Figure 5 - 22 . In bo th schoo ls the belo nging of girls who perce ive their behav io ur to be av erage is the highe st and Schoo l S girls? belo nging part ic ularly decline s if their perce pt io n of behav io ur is lo we r. It is visible fo r these girls that the so cial elem e nt of their belo nging decline s in signific anc e . Fo r boy s, the effe c t of their highe r perce pt io ns of behav io ur is cleare r in its relat io nship with their belo nging, which decline s as perce pt io ns of behav io ur get lo wer. 1 96 Figure 5-23 Belonging Index related to the teacher's perception of the child's behaviour (High, Medium & Low) - Year 5 & 6 In bo th scho o ls belo nging reduc e s fo r childre n whom the teache r perce ive s to behav e po o rly , a pheno me no n which is mo st evide nt fo r bo y s. The belonging of girls in Schoo l A is slight ly mo re resilie nt to the teacher?s perce pt io ns of behav io ur and the balanc e of their belonging to the diffe re nt aspe c t s of the phy sic al schoo l rem ains reasonably co nsist e nt . Schoo l S girls on the othe r hand s ho w a relat iv e increase in their ident ific at io n of the aest het ic / funct io nal feat ure s of schoo l in prefe re nce to tho se of so cial signific ance ( Figure 5 - 2 4 ) . 1 97 Figure 5-24 Belonging Index for School S Yr 5 girls shown for those perceived by the teachers as exhibiting high, medium and low behaviour broken down by cultural, aesthetic/functional and social physical aspects of school 5.5.4 Ability and ability group Figure 5 - 25 demo nst rate s the relat io nship betw ee n the c hildre n?s belo nging and ho w they perce ive their own ability . Apart from the bo y s at Scho o l A who co nside r their abilit y to be low and who se belo nging is lowe r than average , the belonging of boy s at bo th schoo ls wo uld appe ar to be large ly unre late d to their academ ic self- co nc e pts. The bo y s with lo w academ ic self - co nc e pt demo nst rate a relat iv e ly highe r belo nging to feat ure s of the phy sic al schoo l with cult ural signific anc e . High belo nging of girls, howe ve r, is mo re fundame ntally linke d to perce iv ing them se lv e s as acade m ic ally average . The lo we st sense of belo nging in bo th classe s is fo und fo r girls who perce ive themse lve s to be of high abilit y . 1 98 Figure 5-25 Belonging Index in relation to the child?s perceptions of ability - Year 5 & 6 Figure 5 - 26 demo nst rate s that apart from boy s whom the teache r perce iv e s to be of lo w abilit y , childre n?s belo nging is reaso nably inde pe nde nt of these academ ic perspec t ive s of the teache rs. Figure 5-26 Belonging Index in relation to the teacher?s perceptions of child?s ability - Year 5 & 6 1 99 The results also sugge st that the perce pt io ns of the child and of the teache r are no t aligne d and that the teache r?s perce pt io ns of the childre n?s behavio ur are mo re dom inant . This is a crit ic al po int in the quest fo r transfo rmat io n and the desire to mov e from co nt ainm e nt to attainm e n t . Abilit y gro ups diffe r fro m abilit y in the sense that they repre se nt an enfo rce d so cial gro uping and a public judgm e nt by the teache r. This repre se nt s a fo rm of kudo s and diffe re nt iatio n and Figure 5 - 27 rev e als that the childre n?s belo nging large ly fo llow s Figure 5 - 26 apart from the effec t of bein g place d in the lowe st gro up. This fo rm alisat io n of a teache r?s perce pt io n can be seen there fo re to be injurio us to a child?s well- be ing and belo nging. It is part ic ularly define d in Schoo l S which is so cially mo re intense . Figure 5-27 Belonging Index by Ability Group Year 5 & 6 5.5.5 Expressed happiness High belo nging is also generally asso c iate d with expresse d happine ss, as indic at ed in Figure 5 - 28 . This is part ic ularly evide nt fo r girls and mo st no tably in Schoo l S. Schoo l A boy s, ho we v er, are am biguo us in their respo nse s. While Figure 5 - 2 8 relates to Happiness Learning, an ev aluat io n of Happiness around school pro duc e s very sim ilar result s. 2 00 In addit io n to co nclusio ns that belo nging and well - be ing sho uld be co nside re d to be mo r e than po pularit y , this indic ate s that expre sse d happine ss is also only one dim e nsio n, explaining the po larise d respo nse s in the GDBD study in Chapt e r 3. Figure 5-28 Belonging by Expressed Happiness Learning (High, Medium, Low) Year 5 & 6 5.5.6 Year 5 and 6: Review T he olde r childre n at both schoo ls indic ate a pro gre ssio n of the social scho o l env iro nme nt illust rat e d by Year 1 & 2 and the influe nc e of the schoo l cult ure on a child?s sense of well- be ing is highly ev ide nt . The social circle s are much wide r and it is the oute r circle which becom e s mo re stre t c he d prov iding evide nc e of an incre ase d so cial exclusiv it y . While girls co nt inue to be mo re discrim inat ing it has been no te d that the boy s are more like ly to reje ct ano t he r child of the sam e gende r. The studie s gene rally rev e ale d an inte nsificat io n of the social relat io nships in the class, an effe c t which in Schoo l S, as predic t e d base d on Chapt er 3 and 4, was more defined. In Year 1 and 2 boy s? belo nging in relat io n to po pularity was am biguo us and was po te nt ially relat e d to the atte nt io n that the mo st and least po pular bo ys rece ive d. Fo r the olde r boy s there is a declining sense of belo nging as po pularit y is lo we r; equally the findings po int to highe r belo nging relat e d to posit ive perce pt io ns of behav io ur. 2 01 Inte re st ingly, boy s? perce ptio ns of abilit y are also assoc iat e d with po pularity but their belo nging is mo re resilie nt unless these perce pt io ns are so cially form alise d by placing children in abilit y gro ups. These so c ial gro upings no tably affe ct the sense of belo nging of all children. In relat io n to this, boy s? belo nging is mo re depe nde nt on the teacher?s perce pt io ns of them com pare d with their perce pt io ns of them se lv e s. Likew ise , girls indic at e comm o nalit y betwe e n the schoo ls. Altho ugh po sit iv e acade m ic and behav io ural perce pt io ns are sim ilarly linke d to a girls? po pularit y at Scho o l S, mo st signific ant in the girls? belo nging is hav ing a self- co nc e pt of being average , behav io urally and acade m ic ally . This is replic ate d at Schoo l A and mo reo ve r in this case , girls? social po sit io ns also bene fit fro m being average . Girls are equally affe c t e d by the so cial judgme nt of abilit y gro ups. In bo th scho o ls boy s, as a gro up, show lo we r belo nging than girls. Fo r boy s at Scho o l A an d girls at Scho o l S, po sit ive ident ific at io n switc he s relat ive ly towards aest he t ic and funct io nal feat ure s of the scho o l as their belo nging declines. Boy s? po sit ive ident ific at io n with so cial aspe c t s of the scho o l dim inishe s but its im po rt ance relat iv e to ov erall belo nging rem ains co nsistent . In bo th Year 5/6 classe s, the dev iat io n from the average (mean) respo nse to the ident it y cards is less than the yo unge r classe s, indic at ing that childre n think and perce iv e in a mo re sim ilar way by the tim e they reach the end of prim ary schoo l com pare d with when they start . Co ncurre nt ly the range of respo nse s is much wide r fo r the olde r children indic at ing that cert ain childre n become mo re dist ant fro m what might be co nside re d no rm al. This raise s issue s of bo th ho mo ge nisat io n and of inclusiv it y . 5.6 A subsequent discussion of chairs and prescription in design Chapt e r 4 asse rt e d that it is very diffic ult to evaluat e design in iso lat io n of the cult ural and social dynam ic s of ev ery day schoo l life . This chapte r has treat e d the mate rial schoo l as inex t ric able fro m this co nt e xt and ev aluat e d childre n?s sense of belo nging on this basis. The findings so far are gene ral in their nature but with rele v ant im plicat io ns. One key finding is that by the latte r stage s of prim ary schoo l a bo y s? well - be ing, part ic ularly , will be influe nc e d by perce pt ions of their behav io ur, no tably the teache r?s. This has been linke d to bo th their po pularity with peers and their overall sense of belo nging. With this in mind, behav io ur 2 02 and perhaps mo re im po rt an t ly perce pt io ns of behav iour, can be seen as the domain of design and its po te nt ial influe nce . A schoo l chair, as discusse d in Chapt e r 2, is a ubiquit o us feat ure of scho o ls. Chapte r 2 also ident ifie d that chairs are ofte n blindly acce pt e d within schoo l and co nce rns fo r childre n?s back pro ble ms are gene rally met by discussio ns of ergo nom ic s. This is a gene ral failing to challe nge the chair itse lf and the teaching pract ic e which require s childre n to sit in chairs fo r an unnat ural amo unt of tim e (Barbe r, 199 4 ) . Here there is a bro ader discussio n require d abo ut childre n?s phy sic alit y and the im po rt anc e of reflec t ing mov em e nt in the env iro nm e nt s in which they learn. This thesis ident ifie s the design of a chair to be delibe rat e ly presc ript iv e: it is clear that use inv o lv e s being in a seat e d po sit io n facing fo rw ards and there is a bo undary which dete rm ine s whet he r mov em e nt is co nside re d no rm al or abno rm al. Fo r exam ple , sitt ing with the who le bo dy facing to the side is inco ngruo us wi th what the back of the chair comm unic ate s as normal . In addit io n, by defining a bo undary , it denie s the child any phy sic al co ntac t with othe r childre n in a way which can also be co nside re d normal . Chapt e r 2 co nje c t ure d that the mo tiv at io n fo r so cialisat io n and organisat io n in scho o ls define s to a degre e the way they are designe d and seco ndly the way design is used. In this respe c t no rm al and abno rmal use translate s into acce pt able or unacc e pt able and info rm s behav io ural expe c tat io ns in the classroo m . Cult urally scho o l chairs have been furt he r im bue d with co nst raints, like the wide ly reco gnise d misdem e ano ur of leaning on the back two legs of the chair describe d in Chapte r 2. Altho ugh the design has gene rally enable d leaning or rock ing to the po int of creat ing what might be co nside re d a part ic ularly pleasing motio n, this has been cent ral to the behav io ural restric t io ns assoc iat e d with the furnit ure . In this way it is po ssible to see ho w the chair has prov ide d a vehic le with which to establish and enfo rce autho rity . The chair, as discusse d, is a legac y of the tradit io n of scho o l design which, whet he r co nsc io usly or unco nsc io usly , driv e s behav io ural expec t at io ns and issue s of co nt ro l. Co nsidering the chair?s unco nsc io us im pac t on a teache r, it is easy to see how a child may be perce iv e d to be behav ing badly if they stray beyo nd the phy sic al bo undarie s dete rm ine d by the chair or succum b to the oppo rt unity to lean and rock on the chair. As Chapt e r 2 ident ifie d, the curre nt prim ary scho o l env iro nm e nts are lim it ing bo th phy sic ally and so cially , both of which can lead to definit io ns of acce ptable behav io ur. Co m po unding this, the teache r?s perce pt io n may , as describe d in this chapte r, affe c t the belo nging and so cial po sit io n of 2 03 the child. In both study scho o ls the t eache rs? perce pt io ns of childre n who behave poo rly sugge st that phy sic al co nce rns of the env iro nm e nt mo st ly affe c t s bo y s and their feelings of well- be ing: acro ss the two olde r classes a co nsist e nt patte rn was illust rat e d in which, of th o se childre n whom the teache r perce iv e d to behav e well, 73% were girls; of tho se childre n co nside re d to behave the least well, 71% were boy s. Mo rt imo re, Sam mo ns , Sto ll, Lewis & Eco b (199 4) , fo llo w ing obse rv at io ns in prim ary scho o l class ro om no te that , ?Ov e rall, it appe ars that the main diffe re nc e in teache rs? classroom co ntac t with girls and boy s was in the great e r num be r of negat ive com me nt s, refe rring to their behav io ur, made to bo ys (p.1 03 ) .? In part ic ular they co nclude that a negat iv e cycle may occur in which boy s are react ing to the way they are treat e d by the teache r; rele v ant ly , Epst e in, Elwoo d, Hey & Maw (19 98 ) ident ify boy s? lesse r achiev em e nt in schoo l. Ho wev e r, base d on obse rvat io ns of the Year 5 class at Schoo l B who were stro ngly orie nt e d to phy sic al activ ity and spo rt irre spe c t iv e of gende r, it wo uld be sim plist ic to rest rict the discussio n entire ly to boy s. Furt he r mo re , as a co nse que nc e of t h e lo ngst anding prem ise in schoo ls that behav io ur and achie v eme nt sho uld no t b e in co nflict (see Chapte r 2) , it em erge s in this chapt e r that the two can be co nfuse d and perhaps even co nside re d syno nymo us in the child?s mind. Therefo re it is po ssible that wh ile the effec t of the chair is esse nt ially behav ioural, it can also detrim e nt ally affe ct the child?s no tio ns of ability , or academ ic self- c o nc e pt . This, to ge t he r with overall effe c t s on negat iv e asso c iat io n and belo nging, can po te nt ially lead to persist ing dise ngage me nt with schoo l. Figure 5 - 29 descr ibe s a design inte rv e nt io n in Schoo l B carrie d out by the autho r to challe nge the predom inanc e of the chair and table in prim ary schoo l classro om s. 2 04 Figure 5-29 The Learning Island - influence of design on teachers? perceptions of children. 2006. Designer: R Cullis. Photograph. Source: Author The Learning Island: The purpose was to introduce a piece of furniture which did not define a learning position for the child to fit into but, instead, offered a multitude of options and allowed for close proximity and contact between children. The designed piece blurred the boundaries between furniture and architecture to provide a raised circular flat learning island sited in the middle of the classroom. The surface of the canopied wooden island was flat and raised approximately fifteen centimetres above the ground. The teachers perceived an improvement and connected this with the level at which the children were able to work. ?It has been lovely watching the children?s attitudes change and many children work much better on the low level floor.? Concurrent with this are the teachers? perceptions of behaviour. One teacher mentioned that ?It is used by all t he children, both higher and lower abilities, and has proved particularly useful for children with ?poor? behaviour who seem to prefer working on a lower level.? In addition the children ?are keen to work on the island. No behavioural issues while children are using it. They love working on it.? 2 05 The teache rs? rem ark s in Figure 5 - 29 are arguably an indic at io n of how the design herit age of schoo ls can dete rm ine ho w childre n are perce iv e d. This Chapt e r indic at e s ho w impo rt ant tho se perce pt io ns can be to a child and ho w arbit rarily or subco nsc io usly they are fo rme d. There was a clear sense that the teachers felt som e degree of libe rat io n from a co nst raint im po se d upo n them with which they were asse ssing the dynam ic in their classroo m . In this way there is sco pe to inte rv e ne in the negat iv e cycle pro po se d by Mo rt imo re et al. (19 94 ) ; the pote nt ial ro le of design to influe nc e the schoo l cult ure and perce pt io ns of acce pt able and unacc e pt able behav io ur is feasible and linke d to yo ung childre n?s academ ic self- co nc e pt s. In a furt he r exam ple, A lex?s refe re nc e in Chapt e r 4 to the n um be r bricks making him misbe hav e indic at e s ho w assoc iat io ns betw ee n phy sic al things, and behav io ur and learning can lead to negat iv e self- co nc e pt s in cert ain areas like nume racy . It is appare nt that Alex finds it irre sist ible to use the num be r brick s in a way that is no t acce pt able . While this is not nece ssarily an issue of design, it does ho we ve r dem o nst rate that obje c t s can become em bo dim e nt s of childre n?s po sit iv e and negat iv e scho o l expe rie nc e s and self - be lie fs. Fundam e nt ally , ev ide nc e prese nt e d here indic at e s this to be an issue of presc riptio n of the env iro nm e nt , which may or may not be co nsc io us by the schoo l, and of unde rst anding ho w childre n inte rnalise this ultim ate ly into feelings of abilit y and wo rt h. This exte nds into the com m unic at ive env iro nm ent and e vide nc e in Schoo l B espe c ially po int s to wards very arbit rary dem arc at io n of the classroo m with signage . Mere ly allo c at ing areas is sym ptom at ic of a schoo l?s ende avo urs to organise as oppo se d to dev e lo p creat ivit y or reading , fo r exam ple . Inst e ad this presc ript ive pract ic e , as the belo nging studie s sugge st can once again lead to childre n belie v ing that they are not creat iv e if they do no t ident ify with these areas. Furt he rmo re , this type of presc ript io n can be regarded as the reality of classroom lay o uts purpo rt e d to suppo rt childre n?s diffe re nt learning sty les, such as tho se pro po se d by Dunn & Dunn (199 3) , in which the classroo m becom e s a to o l fo r organisat io n as oppo se d to learning. Co nside ring kinaest he t ic aspe c t s of learning sty le s fo r exam ple , there is cert ainly an overlap with phy sic alit y , fo r exam ple . Ho we v er, the discussio n put fo rw ard in this sect io n relat e s to pro v iding fo r needs which predic ate learning rathe r than em bro iling designs in ?reduc t iv e ? no tio ns of learning sty le s , as Miliband (20 07 , p.3 ) describe s. There must , howev e r, be a balanc e . P resc ript io n can also be seen as a cult ural react io n to phy sic ally and so cially free r designs. In open plan it appe ars that the teache rs presc ri be d tradit io nal no rm s of behav io ur by rede fining a space which they co nsc io usly or unco nsc io usly 2 06 knew to hav e cert ain behav io ural outcom e s. What wo uld a child be expec t e d to do in an open space othe r than to disco ve r it, running and hiding and in som e case s test ing the lim it s of an adult ?s autho rit y? This thesis sugge st s that open plan offe re d childre n an oppo rtunit y of natural behav io urs which the organisat io n and cult ure of the schoo l co uld no t ho no ur; sim ilar to hav ing a lo ng corrido r and then expe c t ing childre n to no t want to run. Finally , the scale of the challe nge of changing cult ure by creat ing schoo ls which lo ok diffe re nt was illum inat e d by the schoo l cleane rs? refusal to clean the learning islands in both scho o ls. This highlight s the fixe d yet high ly influe nt ial views which exte nd beyo nd the teaching staff to cleane rs and pare nt s fo r exam ple . 5.7 Reflections on the methodology Re se rv at io ns were raise d earlie r in this chapt e r abo ut the risk of prov iding a snapsho t of the classe s? social netw ork s which might be unre pre se nt ativ e and there fo re unre liable as one part ic ular co nt e xt with which to evaluat e childre n?s ident it y card respo nses. Howe v e r, the co nsiste nc y of the so cial circle s by age gro up remo ve s som e of the co nce rns and overall this thesis sugge st s that while children?s respo nse s will naturally vary day by day , the gene ral pict ure prese nt e d is useful. The identity card stud y intro duc e d diffe re nt childre n to the sam e pho to graphs and it was no tic e able that fo r cert ain pho t o graphs childre n inte rpre t e d them quit e diffe re nt ly . The image of the rece pt io n mirro r, shown in Figure 5 - 30 at Schoo l S is a go o d exam ple of a clear gende r diffe re nc e in appraisal. Typic ally boy s comm e nte d on the mirro r itse lf or surv e illanc e issue s, where as girls were gene rally mo re inte re ste d in the rece pt io n desk refle ct e d in the mirro r. In one respe c t this is what the rese arc h was abo ut : ident ify ing ho w indiv iduals and gro ups perce iv e d aspe c t s of the mate rial scho o l. On the othe r hand, in this study which so ught to measure respo nses, it is im po rtant tha t a mo re com ple x im age co uld rende r analy sis of the result s inco nc lusive . In addit io n to this Billie ?s first comm e nt was that he tho ught the pho to graph was coo l which indic at e s that judgm e nt s co uld be made pure ly on the pho to graphs? perce iv e d aest he t ic va lue . The crucifix im age was com ple x and large ly inco nc lusive fo r othe r reaso ns as will be explaine d in Chapt e r 6. 2 07 Figure 5-30 School S reception mirror Cat e go risat io n of the identity card image s into objec t s, archit e ct ure or deco r, fo r exam ple , pro ve d to be fairly arbit rary and inco nc lusive . It was diffic ult to cate go rise an im age as archit e c t ure witho ut reco gnising that the im age sho w n may also cont ain obje ct s or furnit ure fo r inst ance . T he rece pt io n mirro r show n in Figure 5 - 30 is a furt he r illust rat io n of ho w one child may perce ive an obje c t while anot he r perceiv e s furnit ure or archit e c t ure . Gene rally , t his indic at es that treat ing elem e nt s of schoo l design separat e ly does no t refle ct the reality of their use. Prev io us chapt e rs have been crit ic al of researc h which seeks to make abso lut e link s betw e e n aspe c t s of a child?s well- be ing. These hav e typic ally becom e stat ist ic al exerc ise s which fail to appre c iat e the com ple x , bro ade r nature of well - be ing. In this chapt er, the results hav e been delibe rat e ly prese nt e d to minim ise the use of num bers and to indic at e patt erns of respo nse which in fe r cent ral relat io nships. T he purpo se of this thesis is to pro v ide a fo cus fo r a philo so phic al debat e abo ut childre n and the design of their mate rial wo rld . While the findings sugge st key areas in which othe rs might choo se to carry out stat ist ic al wo rk , t he nece ssary incre ase in sam ple size and cho ice of appro priate metho ds risk lo sing the insight which a mo re in - de pt h study affo rds . 2 08 5.8 Summary Rat he r than a discussio n of mate rials or struc t ural qualit y childre n hav e indic at e d that they will predom inant ly jud ge a physic al feat ure of scho o l by the social and cult ural expe rie nc e s or meaning they assoc iat e with it. This chapt e r init iat e d an inv e st igat io n of belo nging by inv e st igat ing childre n?s posit iv e ident ific at io n with their phy sic al schoo l. The st udie s pres e nt e d are base d on the co nt e nt io n that po sit ive ident ific at io n of eleme nt s of the scho o l present s an acce ss po int fo r researc h into the inv e st igat io n of a child?s well- be ing. Po sit ive ident ificat io n, which , as a cum ulat iv e measure , is refe rre d to as the ch ild?s sense of belo nging, is po sit ion e d as a piv ot al po int from which po sit iv e lo nge r term outcome s like self- e ste em and eco nom ic well - be ing, fo r exam ple , may em erge . The studie s rev e ale d that , base d on two quit e diffe rent prim ary scho o ls, there is much c om mo nality in what dete rm ine s the nature of a child?s exist e nc e at schoo l and their well- be ing. This share d educat io nal cult ure occurs despit e diffe renc e s illust rate d in Chapte rs 3 and 4 which rev e ale d the greate r so cial orie nt at io n of Scho o l S and the acade m ic orie nt at io n of Scho o l A. Fundam e nt ally the comm on fact o r which u nde rlines the share d educat io nal culture and which is emerge nt in this thesis is the im po rt ance of the child - t e ac he r relat io nship and the perv ading im pac t on the way childre n feel and op erat e at scho o l. Addit io nally this chapt e r sugge st s that the fo rm al, inform al and natural gro uping in schoo ls, which is endem ic ally used to suppo rt schoo l organisat io n, fo rms the basis of childre n?s well- be ing as Tajfe l & Turne r?s (197 9 ) Social Ident ity Theo ry wo uld predic t ; childre n?s sense s of belo nging can be seen to be persuasive ly deriv e d by age, gende r, and abilit y gro up fo r exam ple. It is also evide nt that the design of the schoo l refle c t s this gene ral organisat io n and this thesis indic at e s that the lay o ut of classro om s to suppo rt ability gro ups is part icularly injurio us to certain childre n?s well- be ing. Thus, assist ing po sit iv e ident ific at io n with schoo l and hence the fo rm at io n of ident it y which is aligne d to what the schoo l is try ing to achie ve , is an esse nt ial co nce rn of design and appe ars to be fo cuse d on social gro uping. Acro ss bo th schoo ls the olde r boy s sho we d a lo we r sense of belo nging than girls and, base d on the perce pt io ns of the teache rs, there is evide nc e that definit io n s of negat ive behav io ur relate to bo y s mo re than they do to girls. The phy sically rest raining env iro nm e nt s in which these bo ys learn and, as the result s sugge st s, bo ys? height e ne d depe nde nc e on what the teache r think s can only com po und pote nt ial disaffe c t i o n with schoo l. This is no t nece ssarily ho we ve r about childre n 2 09 gett ing away from the teache r; this relat io nship is fo und to be cent rally im port ant to childre n in each of the schoo ls. Com parat ive ly the belo nging studie s illust rate that girls, who are also depe nde nt on the teache rs? perce pt io ns of them , show great e r belo nging if they perce iv e them se lv e s as average which appe ars to be linke d to so cial needs. Furt he rmo re the inte nsit y of girls? relat io nships is mo re pro no unc e d than boy s, which Chapt e r 4 stro ngly im plie d manife st s itse lf in territo rial play gro und behav io ur. This is discussed furt he r in Chapt er 6 by co nside ring respo nse s to part ic ular image s in the Identity Card study . Overall childre n have , as predic t e d, been large ly init iate d into a cult ure base d on behav io ural and acade m ic co nce rns. The identity card study illust rat e s a much greate r varie ty of indiv idual respo nses fro m the yo unge r gro ups com pare d with mo re hom o ge nise d respo nses from the olde r childre n; the older childre n?s respo nse s show gene r al acco rdance with the behavio ural and acade m ic expe c t at io ns of the schoo l. This, describe d furt he r in Chapt e r 6, is a cent ral co nce rn fo r the pursuit of perso nalise d learning in which indiv idualism and creat iv ity are go als. Acco rdingly , it is diffic ult to env isage a sudde n cult ural mov e from co nt ainme nt to attainm e nt , as it is no w co ve te d, and it wo uld appear that on balanc e behav ioural co nce rns of mainst re am schoo ls are prev e nt ing pro gre ss in relat io n to learning and achieve me nt . This, an em erge nt them e i n this rese arc h , is com po unde d by the necessary balanc e betw ee n what is co nside re d achie v eme nt and what is co nside re d acce pt able behav io ur. The learning island illust rate d ho w design might influenc e this by indic at ing that so me aspe c t s of organisat io n an d co nt ro l are no t nece ssarily co nsc io us decisio ns on behalf of the teache r. Som e design inte rve nt io ns can break into this dete rm inism by the phy sic al env iro nme nt to hav e a libe rat ing affe ct on the child and the teache r. There fore , while the researc h prese n t e d here is reaso nably dive rse it does appe ar to rev e al som e simple princ iple s on which to tackle schoo l design cent re d on the recognit io n of the so cial and phy sic al nature of scho o ls and childre n. Challe nging the tradit io nal elem e nt s of schoo l design whic h , this the sis sugge st s, hav e becom e burde ne d with a behav io ural legac y is cent ral to cult ural change . Dete rm inism , it has been co nt e st e d, is fundam e nt ally abo ut presc ript io n in design . It is ev ide nt that , by think ing abo ut the design and use, of schoo ls, the lev e l of presc ript io n would appe ar to be highly relev ant . This refle c t s the po sit io n of Chapt er 2 which sugge ste d that there is no reaso n to belie ve the focus of schoo l organisat io n on acce ptable behav io ur has dim inishe d since Plo w de n (196 7) or even th e Bo ard scho o ls. Finding a balanc e there fo re betw ee n free r, non - pre sc ript iv e 2 10 design and co nt ro lling env iro nme nt s is sugge ste d, part ic ularly when reme m be ring that open plan at the extrem e of no n - pre sc ript iv e design faile d. In addit io n Medd (199 8 ) highlight e d that this was no t just abo ut co nt ro l versus free do m but was also abo ut design hav ing charact er and inte re st fo r bo th the childre n and the teache rs. If a no n - pre script ive env ironm e nt is inde e d a co nt ribut o r to a child?s w ell- be ing, enhanc ing the so cial, phy sic al and hence senso ry nature of the env ironm e nt , it is a co nce rn of both the design and its use in which the scho o l cult ure and organisat ion must be prepare d fo r, and able to fulfil, the behav io ural respo nse . Base d on the asse rt io n that the key is the child - t e ac her relat io nship, it is sugge st e d in this thesis that inv e st igat ing way s to enric h this relat io nship bey ond behav io ural co nst raints must be a jo int prio rit y fo r D esign and Educat io n. Finally , the chapt e r has also indic ate d subt le shift s in the co m po sit io n of children?s belo nging fro m so cial aspe c t s of the phy sical schoo l, fo r exam ple , to aest he t ic / func t io nal aspe c t s. If belo nging is indic at iv e of inclusio n then unde rst anding this is esse nt ial. In addit io n, at th is stage the thesis has no t co nside re d how children hav e respo nde d to indiv idual im age s, and so it wo uld be prem at ure to assume that presc ript iv e env iro nme nt s are no t right fo r all childre n. Fo r example , what do childre n with a high sense of belo nging iden t ify with co m pare d with childre n exhibit ing lo w belo nging? Chapte r 6 will go on to discuss the specific detail of the indiv idual image s and the charac t e r of childre n?s belonging in relat io n to belo nging and inclusio n. 2 11 Chapter 6: School features and perspectives on inclusion 6.1 Introduction Chapt e r 5 inte rpret e d the result s of the scho o l belo nging studie s at an ov erall leve l to co nclude that one of design?s cent ral co nt ribut io ns lies in its effe c t on the child - t e ac he r relat io nship and, in part ic ular, teache rs? percept io ns of a child?s behav i o ur. Within this discussio n the sublim inal message s which tell children and teache rs what is acce pt able and what is no t are a vital, yet litt le unde rst oo d, co nside rat io n of the design. As a co nse que nc e the chapte r highlight ed the effe c t of the legacy of sc hoo ls designe d ?f o r othe r purpo se s at othe r tim e s (Hargre ave s, 1994 , p.x) ,? and indic at e d that presc ript io n, in part ic ular, can be the enemy of a child?s scho o l well - be ing. Sim ilarly , a cult ural lay e r which is equally presc ript iv e is appare nt in ho w the physic al scho o l, archit e c t ure thro ugh to wall display s, com bine s. This appe ars to be the po int at which the behav io ural fo cus of organisat io n in schoo ls is self- pe rpe t uat ing and mutually suppo rt e d by the legac y of Vict o rian design. The findings of Chapt e r 5 co nt ribut e to a gene ral appro ac h to design by indic at ing the areas which are prio rit ising co nt ainme nt ov er attainm e nt and co nfusing childre n abo ut the dist inc t io n betw ee n abilit y and behav io ur. The chapt e r did no t, h o we v er, inve st igate the specific detail affo rde d by the study . This detail offe rs a furt he r insight into childre n?s relat io nships with their phy sic al scho o l and their well- be ing by co nside ring respo nse s to indiv idual aspe cts of the schoo l rev iew e d against childre n?s schoo l and so cial co nte x t . Despite an appare nt diffe re nc e in the lev e l at which bo y s and girls co nsc io usly relat e to mate rial elem e nt s of schoo l, the analy sis in Chapte r 4 did not overly em phasise gende r as a facto r in childre n?s relat io nships w ith their phy sical scho o l. Chapt e r 5, on the other hand, clearly highlight e d that there is a gende r div ide bo th in term s of the childre n?s so cial circle s and the belo nging show n to the phy sic al schoo l by girls and bo y s. In fact respo nse s are mo re clearly d iv ide d by gende r than they are by age and as such this Chapt e r will appro ac h the evaluat io n of im age s with a co nside re d appre c iat io n of gende r differe nc e s and comm o nalit ie s. Childre n?s respo nse s becom e mo re unifo rm as they get olde r which sugge st s the successful socialisat io n ro le of schoo ls. Here majo r im plic at io ns em erge fo r the pursuit of indiv idualit y yet such co nv e rge nce has also been ident ifie d as a com ple t e ly natural phenom e no n of gro up dyn am ic s (Tuck m an, 1965 ; Tajfe l & Turne r, 1979 ) . In addit io n, de spite demo graphic diffe re nc es, the standardisat io n of childre n?s respo nse s prov e d to be commo n acro ss bo th scho o ls and 2 12 happe ne d upo n the sam e aspe c t s of a child?s expe rie nc e at schoo l. This chapt e r will part ic ularly inv e st igate the nature of these comm o n i ssue s fo r the olde r gro ups. Po sit ive ident ific at io n and belo nging, it was pro po s e d in Chapt e r 4, indic ate s the assim ilat io n of schoo ls? cult ural aims in a child?s perso nal ident it y and, alo ngside , feelings of inclusio n in the schoo l so cie ty . In fact , according to the well - be ing mode l, belo nging, inclusio n and ident it y are abso lut e ly linke d and po int towards the achiev eme nt of posit ive lo nge r term outcom e s. The detail of the indiv idual im age s is expe c te d, there fo re , to reve al aspe ct s of the phy sic al schoo l rele v ant to belo nging and hence mo re affe c t iv e outcom e s. This chapt e r explo res belo nging as a signifie r of inclusio n and ident ity , bo th of which are cent ral issue s in to day ?s schoo l pro gramm e s . In pract ic e the term inclusive design has tende d to be narro w ly applie d to pro v isio n fo r peo ple with phy sic al disabilit ie s (Im rie & Hall, 2001 ) yet the discussio n abo ut inclusiv e scho o ls ente rt ains a bro ade r, psy cho lo gic al obje c t iv e as well as including co nce rns of race and religio n, fo r e xam ple (CSIE , 2008 ) . The Cent re for Studie s on Inclusive Educat io n (CSIE , 2008 , para. 2 ) describe s, ?i ncre asing the part ic ipat ion of stude nt s in, and reduc ing their exclusio n from , the cult ure s, curric ula and comm unit ie s of lo c al schoo ls .... not only (fo r) those with im pairm ent s or tho se who are cate go rise d as `hav ing special educat io nal need?.? This Chapt e r will co nside r childre n?s respo nse s to the im age s prese nte d in the ident it y cards study to draw co nclusio ns abo ut diffe re nt perspe c t iv e s on inclusio n and how the material schoo l co nt ribut es. The im age s sho w n in the figure s are ident ic al to tho se which were sho w n to the childre n. 6.2 Evaluation of children?s responses T he belo nging rese arc h evaluat e d childre n?s respo nse s to a ran ge of diffe re nt aspe c t s of their phy sic al scho o l env iro nm ent , som e of which were reaso nably predic t able like play gro und benche s where as othe rs were less so , like the Schoo l A chim ney , or the onio ns gro w ing at Scho o l S. Childre n?s respo nse s were equally unp re dic t able because they rev e ale d the child?s inte ract io n with the phy sic al schoo l rathe r than adult s? assum pt ions abo ut this inte rac t io n. This sect io n prese nt s the exam ple of the gate rele ase butt o n at Schoo l A to describe the gene ral appro ac h to ev aluat i o n prese nt e d in this chapt e r. The result s of childre n?s po sit ive ident ific at io n with the gate rele ase in relat io n to their overall belo nging, po pularit y and self- conc e pt s are discusse d in the co nt e xt of inclusio n. 2 13 6.2.1 Symbols used Be fo re prese nt ing this exam pl e , the sym bo ls used thro ugho ut this chapt e r require explanat io n. The metho d fo r capt uring childre n?s respo nse s to im age s of their phy sic al schoo l entaile d the use of sm iley face s relat e d to a 1 to 5 Like rt scale (See Chapt e r 5). Thi s chapt e r uses av erage s of the childre n?s respo nse s calculat e d fo r diffe re nt fo rmal or info rm al gro upings, base d on gende r, learning gro up, so cial po sit io n, or belo nging. Fo r example , fo r social posit io n childre n are div ide d, as per Chapte r 5, into cent ral, middle and oute r child re n. Fo r belo nging, on the othe r hand, they are gro upe d into high, medium and low belo nging groups which are allo c at e d base d on belo nging relat ive to the rest of the class. Altho ugh fo r the actual rese arc h activ ity with the childre n it was deeme d to o com p lic ate d to prese nt mo re than five face s, the averaging of result s enable s a mo re diffe re nt iate d scale to be used. This scale with its asso c iate d sym bo ls is show n in Figure 6 - 1 and uses ?+? and ? ? ? sy m bo ls as the eyes of the face s to indic at e mo re or less favo urable result s within the range of the sam e face , i.e. and inst e ad of . 1 >1 < 1.5 >=1.5 < 2 >=2 < 2.5 >=2.5 < 3 >=3 <3.5 >=3.5 < 4 >=4 < 4.5 >=4.5 < 5 5 Figure 6-1 Symbols reflecting children's responses against a Likert scale of 1 to 5 In keeping with the basic pract ic e of the thesis, sym bols and their infe re nc e s are used in prefe re nce to nume ric al value s. 2 14 6.2.2 Exploring the gate release Figure 6-2 The gate release button - School A Sc ho o l A has a fro nt gate opening onto the m ain street which runs thro ugh the village . The barre d metal gate is high in relat ion to a child and, within the memo ry of the olde r childre n, replace d an old woo de n gate which was much sm alle r. On the outside of the pane lle d woo den hut just inside the gate , is a rele ase button at a height which wo uld allo w an adult to press it but no t a child of average height . This is sh ow n in Figure 6 - 2 . Fo r the Schoo l A bo ys the gate rele ase is the seco nd mo st po pular im age in Year 1 and 2 and the third mo st po pular in Class 3, Year 5 & 6. While the butt o n is place d fo r security reaso ns and supe rfic ially its po pularity with boy s may be seen as a refe re nc e to safe ty , the study reve als that it sym bo lises a variet y of things fo r differe nt childre n. In fact , as much as the star of the day implie s co nfo rm ance , the gate release butto n appe ars to d emo nst rate the im po rt anc e of play fulne ss and rebe llio n fo r bo y s. Co nve rsat io ns with the childre n discusse d the motiv atio ns to replac e the old gate with som e t hing mo re secure , keeping ?the unwant e d out? and making it ?safe fo r the litt le ones.? Alte rnat ive l y childre n talk e d excit e dly abo ut go ing hom e . Ho we ve r, mo re negat ive ly , a num be r of the olde r 2 15 childre n, bo ys and girls, ment io ne d feelings of being trappe d and no t being trust ed. Very clearly and po ssibly relate d to these feelings of entrapm e nt , som e bo y s fo und the challe nge of jum ping up to press the butto n and no t being caught to be very excit ing. Co nse que nt ly , acro ss both classe s it is mo st po pular with the bo y s. Girls and bo y s in the Turt le s sho w sim ilar pro files in which po sit iv e ident ific at io n is link e d to low teache r percept io ns of ability and behav io ur. Where boys and girls diffe r is in the relat io nship betw ee n their feelings towards the butto n and their ov erall belo nging to scho o l. Boy s ident ify incre asingly with the gate rele ase as their overall be lo nging to scho o l decl ine s, as Table 6 - 1 indic ate s . Sim ply fo r many of the bo ys it is indic at ive of fun and while it can be argue d that the oppo rt unit y to be naught y and push bo undarie s is im port ant , it is appare nt that there is a react io n to the autho rit y of the scho o l and its cult ure . This is illustrat ed in Table 6 - 1 in which the average respo nse s of childre n with high, medium and low belo nging fo r all images is co m pare d with their expre sse d ident ific at io n with the gate rele ase . The gate release is evide nce of the gende r diffe re nc e in respo nse s to aspe c t s of the phy sic al schoo l, sugge ste d by the discussio n in Chapte r 5. It can be surm ise d fro m these result s and the unst ruc t ure d inte rv iew s that girls? po sit ive relat io nships with the gate rele ase are prim arily linke d with feelings of safet y . Howe ve r, fo r girls expressing lo w belo nging it wo uld seem that prov isio n fo r safe t y is less signific ant and negat iv e feelings relat ing to free do m prev ail. Boys Girl s All im age s Gate rele ase All im age s Gate rele ase Hi g h bel on g i n g Medi u m bel on g i n g Low bel on g i n g Table 6-1 Identification with the gate release button by High, Medium and Low belonging - Year 1 & 2 - School A 2 16 In year 5 and 6 the gate rele ase is em phat ic ally po pular with the bo y s who also demo nst rat e the lo west belo nging to scho o l and gene rally it is mo st popular with tho se childre n who m the teache r perce ive s to behave poo rly or to be of lo we r abilit y . 6.3 Children?s relationships with symbols of achievement Chapt e r 3 discuss e d the way in which phy sic al aspe c t s of the scho o l are used to co nv ey message s abo ut the scho o l cult ure and its values. The gate release butto n overt ly co mm unic at e s value s of securit y and safet y and probably autho rit y . Bo th schoo ls hav e vario us sym bo ls whi ch relat e to the value place d on achiev em ent and are eithe r base d on indiv idual or comm unal attainm e nt . Some of these sym bo ls cam e to the fo re in the GDBD (Chapt e r 3) s tudy inc luding, fo r exam ple , the class turt le and the ho use po int cup. This sect io n inv e st igat e s childre n?s relat io nships with these furt he r. 6.3.1 The housepoint cup at School A Figure 6-3 The housepoint cup - School A In Chapt e r 3 the GDBD study rev e ale d the perce iv e d im po rt anc e of the ho use po int cup, po rt raye d in Figure 6 - 3 , to the children in Class 3 who co nsiste nt ly refe rre d to the award or lo ss of 2 17 house po ints; the cup is highly visible in the classro om as a sym bo l of achiev eme nt . Chapt e r 5 went on to highligh t the depe nde nc e childre n gene rally dem o nst rate on the teache r?s perce pt io ns of them and the ho use po int cup is a prim e exam ple of ho w the mate rial schoo l is used to reinfo rce this aspe c t of the cult ure . Its aest het ic is one of spo rt ing achiev em e nt which de libe rat e ly appro priat e s po pular sym bo ls fo r the pursuit of schoo l obje ct ive s. The exam ple s of the teddy bear and the turt le are bro adly equiv ale nt to the cup fo r the yo unge r classe s. The cup is wide ly po pular with the childre n and its focus on co llec t iv e c om pe t it io n, thro ugh the gro uping of childre n into houses , appe ars to make a diffe re nc e fo r many . Success is team - base d which is ev ide nt in the childre n?s po sit iv e co mme nt s: ?Yellow s!? or ?Gree ns have n?t wo n yet.? Boys Girl s All im age s Ho use po int Cup All im age s Ho use po int Cup Cent re Middl e Out er Table 6-2 Identification with the Housepoint Cup across the social circle - Year 5 & 6 Boys and Girls - School A It is feasible that the co lle ct iv e rathe r than the indiv idual basis on which it is wo n co nt ribute s to the po sit ive ident ific at io n sho w n by the childre n who are on the oute r so cial circle , show n in Table 6 - 2 . Ho wev e r , it is consist e nt ly po pular fo r childre n whate ve r their sense of belo nging; a po sit ive indic ato r fo r inclusio n in relat io n to this specific cult ure . Asse ssing po sit ive ident ificat io n against perce pt io ns of behav io ur and abilit y is also rev ealing. Fo r bo y s it is clear that tho se who m the teache r perce ive s to behav e the wo rst are less favo urable as are boy s who se ability is perce ive d by the teache r to be high. This indic at es that , in realit y , it is 2 18 pro bably a mechanism fo r inclusio n of childre n who are less able and, sim ult ane ously , a way of managing childre n?s behav io ur. By appro priat ing po pular sym bo ls one co uld sugge st that it is a subt le metho d of co ndit io ning and enfo rc ing rule s. Sect io n 6.5 co nt rast s this with othe r metho ds of enfo rc ing rule s like the use of co mm unic at io n in the fo rm of the Schoo l S Co de and the Schoo l A Chart e r. With respe c t to abilit y , the inclusiv e effe ct is em phat ically clear fo r girls who are in the lo west learning gro up or who m the teache r pe rce iv e s to be of lo we r ability . The accomm o dat io n of childre n with lo w academ ic self- co nc e pt s appe a rs to offe r the chanc e fo r them to achie ve , to win and to co nt ribute which is pro bably less com mo n fo r som e of these childre n on an indiv idual basis. The ho use po int cup naturally raise s que st io ns abo ut the way in which the cult ure appro ac he s achie v eme nt and ho w the indiv idualisat io n of schoo l may ultimat e ly prov e exclusiv e . The sym bo lising of obje c t s in this way can be seen po sit ively in term s of inclusio n, bo th fo r childre n who are less po pular with their peers and ch ildre n who gene rally feel lo w belo nging to schoo l. T he cup can lo gic ally be seen as a mechanism to balanc e exclusio n in a stro ng achie v em e nt cult ure . 6.3.2 The trophy at School S Figure 6-4 Trophy at School S 2 19 In com mo n with othe r symbo ls of achiev em e nt , the tro phy at Sch oo l S ( Figure 6 - 4 ) is also wide ly po pular and the range of respo nses aro und the av erage was the lo we st of all the im age s. Overall bo y s are mo st favo urable co m pare d with girls . Posit ive ident ific at io n, ho wev e r, is part ic ularly appare nt from low belo nging girls indic at ing a sim ilar patt e rn to the ho use po int cup at Schoo l A and is like ly to signify the desire to share in succe ss. Com bining succe ss with a spo rt ing aest he t ic , it is no tice ably po pular with bo y s in the lowe st learning gro up and the so cially cent ral boys are very fav o urable . Childre n typic ally asso c iat e it with winning (?we wo n!?) and co lle c t iv e pride (?I?m glad fo r the schoo l?) . The Pandas? respo nse s suppo rt the co nclusio ns made fo r the olde r class. Po sit iv e ident ific at io n is sho w n by boy s who express the highe st happine ss and tho se who m the teache r attribut e s the great e st abilit y . Fo r girls the oppo sit e is the case . This indic at e s the appe aling qualit ie s of winning fo r boy s and sharing in succe ss fo r girls. 6.3.3 The Victorian project display at School A Figure 6-5 The Victorian project display in Class 3 - School A Chapt e r 2 describe d the comm o n pract ic e of display ing childre n?s wo rk in either the classro om or in hallw ay s and this can be viewe d as ano t he r sym bo l of achiev eme nt ; Killee n, Evans, & Danko (200 3) indic at e that children feel po sit iv e ly abo ut hav ing their wo rk on view . In suppo rt , Danie lle , fo r exam ple , feels that ?if yo ur wo rk is up it repre se nts yo u,? sugge st ing the decorat iv e 2 20 env iro nm e nt can be used to refle c t the childre n?s ident it ie s. Ho we ve r, unde rly ing these refl ec t e d ident it ie s are mo re fundame nt al message s abo ut what the schoo l co nside rs to be go o d, as Chapt e r 3 pro po se d, prov iding the c haracter of share d ident it y . The Victorian display in Class 3 at Scho o l A show n in Fig ure 6 - 5 is an exam ple of such a display which, in this case , illust rate s a histo ry to pic the class was wo rking on. It is notably mo re po pular with girls than bo ys . Fo r both, ho we ve r, po sit i v e ident ific at io n is stro ngly relat e d to high overall belonging to scho o l ( Table 6 - 3 ) and there fo re many children do perce ive the display as a comm unicat io n of the value s of the scho o l. Boys Girl s Overall Vict o rian Display Overall Vict o rian Display High belo nging Medium belo nging Low belo nging Table 6-3 The Victorian display - Belonging by Gender - Year 5 & 6 - School A Com pare d with the mo re lite ral sym bo ls of achie vem ent which invo lv e the act of winning, the display appe ars to hav e the oppo sit e effe ct by part ic ularly appe aling most to bo ys in the oute r so cial circle and with the girls in the so cial cent re . As seen in Ch apte r 5, these tend to be girls with medium self- c o nce pt s. On the othe r hand bo y s who perce iv e their behav io ur to be goo d or the teache r perce iv es their behav io ur to be go o d, ident ify the mo st , indic at ing the lack of clarity betw ee n achiev eme nt and behav io ur, sugge ste d prev io usly . It is useful to com pare this ev aluat io n against the childre n?s co mme nt s which refle c t mo re lo gic al and pract ic al tho ught s; som e sugge st that the display is out of date , some refle c t on their inte re st , or lack of inte re st , in the subje c t and othe rs explain how much they like putt ing things up. So phie 2 21 says ?I like the way it?s prese nt e d. Mo re sho uld go up,? where as Freddie say s ?we do n?t use it.? This is furt he r ev ide nce of the gap betwe e n findings of rese arc h which demands co nsc io us, lo gic al explanat io ns and the com parat iv e, no n - v e rbal metho ds used in the belo nging exerc ise s. 6.3.4 Ability group signs Figure 6-6 Ability group sign - Year 1 & 2 - School A In Chapt e r 5 it was sho w n that there is a link betw ee n olde r childre n?s belo nging, their so cial po sit io n, and the abilit y group in which they are placed. I t was co nclude d that this public decisio n, made by the teache r, is a so cially im po rt ant one fo r the childre n. Fo rm al gro uping enfo rce s ident it y and it prov ide s childre n with a ready - m ade cate go risat io n with which to exerc ise inclusio n and exclusio n, behav i o ur which has been describe d by Tajfe l & Turne r (197 9 ) . Altho ugh this relat io nship was not well fo rm e d in eithe r of the yo unge r classe s studie d, becom ing mo re appare nt in the olde r classe s, an im age of the abilit y gro up sign illust rat e d in Figure 6 - 6 was sho w n to the Turt le s, to gauge their feelings to wards it. 2 22 All chil dr en Abilit y / learning gro up Abilit y gro up sign Hi g h Medi u m Low Table 6-4 Identification with the ability group sign by High, Medium and Low ability group - Year 1 & 2 - School A P o sit ive ident ific at io n is cert ainly dete rm ine d by which gro up the child is in, with the sign being most fav o ure d by tho se in the highe st gro up, as s hown in Table 6 - 4 . As a mixe d age class, apart fro m one indiv idual, the high and the low learning group is made up of Year 2 and Year 1 childre n respe c t iv e ly and it has been sho w n that po sit iv e identific at io n is much greate r for Year 2 childre n com pare d with Year 1. This is part ic ularly the case fo r girls who po sit iv e ly ident ify with the sign: Year 2 com pare d with Year 1 girls. It is not obv io us whet he r, in mixe d age classe s, the form alisat io n of gro ups is detrim e nt al to the yo unge r childre n but fro m these respo nse s it is wo rt h inv e st igat io n. Aside from abilit y , overall the sign is mo st po pular with childre n who perce iv e themse lv es, or are perce ive d by the teache r, to behav e well; it wo uld appear there fo re that age and behav io ur are relev ant factors in abilit y gro uping. Fo r boy s, the sign is mo st po pular in the oute r so cial circle , where as, fo r girls the oppo site is the case . Ho wev e r, for both sexe s it is link e d to high ov erall belo nging to scho o l, show n in Table 6 - 5 , and po sit ive ident ific at io n dro ps co nside rably fo r girls with lo w overall belo nging. 2 23 Boys Girl s All im age s Learning gro up sign All im age s Learning gro up sign Hi g h bel on g i n g Medi u m bel on g i n g Low bel on g i n g Table 6-5 Identification with the learning group sign by High, Medium and Low belonging - Year 1 & 2 - School A Re fe re nc e s made by the childre n sugge st som e irrit at io n at being gro upe d and to the fact that it sym bo lises wo rk; Alex ment io ns that ?It make s me cross,? and Alex ia rues that ?we have to do wo rk.? Othe rs rev eal that they find the sign helpful for rem em be ring which gro up they are in. Figure 6-7 ?To read using expression and looking at the punctuation? - Learning group sign at School S 2 24 The learning gro up sign at Scho o l S, show n in Figure 6 - 7 , is no t an entire ly equiv ale nt co m pariso n with the Schoo l A sign. The im age depic t s a sign which hangs abo ve one of the classroo m table s indic at ing where the highest learning gro up (purple ) wo rk . In this case the comm unic at io n also acts as a territo rial indic ator which indic ate s that it is do ubly im pac t ful. The im age is mo st po pular with the highe st gro up po te nt ially reve aling the childre n?s ident ific at io n with the purple learning gro up rathe r than learning gro ups as a who le . Sev e ral refe re nce s are made to the sign repre se nt ing the highe st gro up: Michae l say s ?I?m in it: the highe st gro up,? and Megan say s ?I?d like to be in the purple gro up.? There are ho we v e r some mo re negat iv e refe re nc es. Christo phe r, speak ing in the third perso n, rem ark s that ?He?s to g o into the red if he trie s to sit in the blue ? and Jam il plainly say s ?bo ring.? Tany a po sit iv e ly ment io ns that her co usin Dylan is in the purple gro up, reve aling the influe nc e of asso c iat io n. 6.3.5 Review D iffe re nt eleme nt s of the phy sic al schoo l which refle ct or attem pt to stim ulat e abilit y and achie v eme nt hav e subt ly diffe re nt effe ct s on childre n. Obje c t s like the Schoo l S tro phy and the ho use po int cup appe al no tic e ably to girls with low belo nging who are ofte n the less po pular girls. They seem to respo nd well to the oppo rt unity prese nte d fo r co lle c t iv e achiev em ent whilst , com parat iv e ly, the mo st fav o urable boy s are mo re like ly to be po pular and with highe r belo nging. The winning and spo rt ing aest he t ic app e ars signific ant in this case . Prev io us chapt e rs have co nt e ste d that objec t s used in this way can be seen as condit io ning too ls and while this asse rt io n is uphe ld, there is an apparent inclusiv ity fo r a num be r of childre n at risk of degree s of exclusio n. F or others, like boy s with lo we r belo nging, othe r tradit ional feat ure s are im po rt ant ; these boy s ident ify more with subt le refle ct io ns of co llec t ive achie vem e nt like display s. Crucially achiev em e nt is clearly define d fo r childre n and objec t s and comm unic at io n are use d to reinfo rc e these definit io ns. Chapt e r 5 maint aine d that the phy sic al fo rm of schoo ls mirro rs the schoo l organisat io n in term s of fo rmal gro upings and, since Plo w de n (196 7 ) , this is evide nt ly geare d to wards abilit y gro ups in prim ary schoo ls. The furniture in all the classroo ms studie d was organise d base d upo n abilit y or learning gro ups and such public dem arcat io n fo r the child is highly influe nt ial on their well- be ing; the detail in this sect io n indic at e s that such organisat io n can also co nfuse notio ns of ability with age and perce pt io ns of behav io ur. 2 25 6.4 Children?s relationships with learning tools In schoo l inclusio n may be co nside re d to specific ally relat e to the feelings of tho se childre n who are less academ ic ally able , eithe r in their mind or in the mind of the teache r. There is evide nce in Chapt e r 5 that belo nging is lo we r fo r childre n with low opinio ns of their abilit y . The belo nging studie s intro duc e d im age s of vario us learning aids or suppo rt s which allow t his relat io nship to be inv e st igate d. 6.4.1 The computer keyboard Figure 6-8 Computer keyboard in the Turtles classroom at School A T he key bo ard in the Turt les classro om uneart hs issues relat ing to inclusio n, tech no lo gy and the ratio ning of techno lo gy in prim ary schoo ls. The respo nse s of the Turt les reve al that overall it is mo st po pular with girls and the olde r boy s. Fo r girls it is most po sit iv e ly ident ifie d with when their abilit y is perce iv e d to be lo w by bo th them se lve s and the teacher. Sim ilarly boy s who co nside r them se lv e s to be of lowe r ability also demo nst rate a prefe re nc e . Table 6 - 6 illust rat es these po int s. 2 26 Perce pt io n of abilit y Boys Girl s Hig h Medi u m Low Table 6-6 Identification with the computer keyboard by High, Medium and Low child?s perceived ability - Year 1 & 2 ? School A He re there is a dist inc t paralle l with the library (Sect ion 6.6 .3 ) in respe c t to how childre n who perhaps feel academ ic ally less include d view alte rnat iv e s to tradit io nal class - base d activ it y which hav e less of a so cial or gro up elem e nt . It appe ars that these childre n are respo nding po sit ive ly to place s or obje c ts which allow them a degree of so cial refuge . The result s also im ply that the key bo ard appe als to both the childre n who are happy learning and tho se who are no t, sugge st ing that the use of com put e rs may no t be co nside re d by the childre n to be learning in the sam e way that reading and writ ing perhaps is. Fro m the po int of view of belo nging, the respo nse s indic at e that the key bo ard is seen as som e t hing posit ive by two dist inc t gro ups of childre n. Th is relat io nship, sho w n in Table 6 - 7 , indic at e s that the key bo ard can equally repre se nt the learning ethos of the schoo l as much as it do es an escape fr o m it. Obse rv at io nal evide nc e from the class also illust rate s that the key bo ard is seen as a scarce reso urce by the childre n and it is nece ssarily ratio ne d by the teache r. The teacher needs to manage its use and this tends to be in a way which suppo rt s so c ialisat io n go als describe d in Chapt e r 2. If this is do ne on the basis of behav io ur, it is ev ide nt ly much mo re favourable fo r the childre n she co nside rs to behav e well as oppo se d to po o rly . 2 27 Boys Girl s All im age s Key bo ard All im age s Key bo ard Hi g h bel on g i n g Medi u m bel on g i n g Low bel on g i n g Table 6-7 Identification with the keyboard by High, Medium and Low belonging boys and girls - Year 1 & 2 - School A 6.4.2 Projector Figure 6-9 The whiteboard projector at School A T he im age of the pro je c to r prese nt e d in Figure 6 - 9 was show n to childre n in Class 3 and pro vo ke d com me nt s relat ing to the use of techno lo gy as an aid to learning; sim ply , ?It helps us learn.? Childre n also refe r to being active ly invo lve d in learning which tradit io nal pedagogy arguably do es no t enco urage: we ?get to inte rac t and no t just lo ok?. 2 28 Howev e r, ov erall fo r girls it is linke d to low self- c o ncept relat ing to ability and behav io ur. Fo r boy s it is the oppo sit e and po sit iv e ident ific at io n is linke d with high perce pt io ns of abilit y , bo th from the child and the teache r, and high expre sse d happiness learning and high abilit y gro up. In Chapt e r 5 it was illust rat e d that these bo y s are typic ally mo re so cially cent ral. It is po ssible there fo re that olde r bo ys relat e techno logy po sit iv e ly with their learning expe rie nce s where as girls, who are co nside re d to be less able , see it as a div e rsio n. 6.4.3 The number line at School S An exam ple of a comm unicat iv e learning to o l, and far mo re tradit io nal than the prev io us illust rat io ns of techno lo gy , is the num be r line at Scho ol S ; a feat ure used to assist childre n with their nume rac y . This is show n in Figure 6 - 1 0 . Figure 6-10 The number line at School S T he Year 5 childre n repo rted that overall this was less po pular than average . Naturally many of the childre n?s comm e nts refe rre d to mathe m at ic s and whet he r they like d the subje c t or no t. Kelly say s ?I do n?t like maths,? where as Kieran thinks it is his ?best subje c t .? A num be r of the childre n, such as Ricky , ment io ns that ?it som e t ime s helps.? Libby howev e r is think ing mo re aest het ic ally: ?it has been up fo r ages. I like change .? 2 29 It is slight ly mo re po pular with the girls in the class than the boy s . Boys who are perce ive d to behav e well are mo st favo urable and there is a signific ant decline in po pularity fo r boy s who are tho ught by the teache r to be of low abilit y . Girls? po sit iv e ident ific at io n, on the othe r hand, is lowe st fo r tho se who perce ive their abilit y to be high and also those who m the teache r believ e s to be of high abilit y . Table 6 - 8 , illust rat e s a very definit e react io n of children with lo w belo nging to the num be r line, indic at ing ho w an achiev em e nt cult ure of schoo ls and its co mm unic at io n can disaffe c t childre n. This is a quite diffe re nt react io n from the key bo ard and pro je ct o r which appe ar no t to alie nat e childre n. Boys Girl s Overall Num be r Line Overall Num be r Line High belo nging Medium belo nging Low belo nging Table 6-8 Identification with the number line by High, Medium and Low belonging boys and girls - Year 5 - School S 6.4.4 Review If fact ors gov e rning inclusio n relat e to childre n?s perce pt io ns of ability , these thre e exam ple s of learning too ls in the classroo m are rev e aling. It wo uld appe ar that childre n gene rally relat e well to the use of techno lo gy and that the key bo ard and the whit e board/ pro je ct o r are ident ifie d po sit ive ly by tho se with low and high self - co nc e pts and be lo nging, alike . This com pare s with the num be r line which appe aled mainly to tho se with highe r self- co nce pt s and belo nging in gene ral. 2 30 While Page (200 8) maint ains that techno lo gy sho uld unde rpin the next gene rat io n of scho o ls and perso nalise d learning, as a no te of caut io n the respo nse s do indic at e a sense of escape fro m the main learning activ it y of the class. It is in these classe s co nside re d to be a reward and there fo re , as techno lo gy becom e s more ubiquit o us, childre n may assoc iat e this more direc t ly with cult ure s they wish to escape from . Cert ainly there is a risk deriv e d from appro priat io n of childre n?s refuge s and also from the po ssible enco uragem e nt of less so cial learning. 6.5 Children?s relationships with visual rules So far the rese arc h has ident ifie d socialisat io n and organisat io n as cent ral and co nt inuingly rele v ant co nce rns of schoo ls. Comm o nly this manifest s itse lf in a stro ng fo cus on childre n's behav io ur and Chapt e r 5 illust rat e d the rele v anc e of this in dete rm inin g childre n?s well- be ing and overall belo nging to scho o l. As a result of the co nce ntrat io n on behav io ur , rule s play e d a majo r ro le in the daily live s of bo th of the study scho o ls and, in one fo rm or ano t he r, tende d to dict ate the co mm unic at iv e env iro nm e nt , part ic ularly in Schoo l S. It is typic al that these rule s are pro duce d by the adult s in the schoo l, and can be view e d as the fo rbe arance of the cult ural schoo l which comm unic at es ho w childre n sho uld part ic ipat e and inte rac t within the scho o l sett ing. Rele v ant ly the Class 3 rule s at Schoo l A were draw n up co llabo rat ive ly with the class altho ugh the childre n?s perce pt io ns of them were no t marke dly diffe re nt . 6.5.1 The School A Charter Figure 6-11 The School A Charter 2 31 The Schoo l A Chart e r is prese nt e d as an offic ial do cume nt , cho o sing to exem plify its grav ity rathe r than attem pt mo re child - frie ndly co mm unic at io n. By no t delibe rat e ly engaging the child from a sty list ic po int of view , the co mm unic at io n might seem to lack im pac t and, despite its perce ive d im po rt anc e , only half (46%) of the Turt le s reco gnise d it and knew what it was; in Class 3, howev e r, this figure incre ase d to nearly three quart ers (72% ) . By co m pariso n the Turt le s and Class 3 reco gnise d and unde rsto o d 86% and 88% resp e c t iv e ly of all the im age s. While this pro bably po int s to its inacce ssible writ t e n sty le , with Jake ment io ning that it is ?hard to read,? it may also relat e to its inco nspic uo us po sit io n in the co rrido r and its size . (Reco gnit io n and unde rst anding result s in relat io n to belo nging and po pularit y are show n in Appe ndix 1 1 ). In the Turt le s the rule s are highly unpo pular with Year 1 childre n, a gro up which wo uld perhaps be most expe ct e d to struggle with co m pre he nsio n. Their lack of fam iliarity is expresse d by R o be rt who was only able to describe the Chart e r as ?writ ing.? Also , howev e r, fo r the younge st childre n who rue the lo ss of the free dom to play in the rece pt io n class and presc ho o l, this respo nse co nce iv ably repre se nt s their react io n to co nfo rm anc e . Alex f o r exam ple say s ? I don?t like rule s ? and Maria comm e nt s that ?I want to do my own thing.? Despit e issue s of com pre he nsio n, there fo re , it is clear that many of the childre n respe c t the grav it y of the comm unic at io n. Dav id, tho ugh no t fully unde rst anding the co nt e nt , rem ark s that ?they (the rule s) are serio us.? T here fo re the Charte r, in its curre nt fo rm , does appe ar to serv e a purpo se in comm unic at ing the etho s. The olde r childre n?s co mme nt s sim ilarly prese nt a no tic e able split in Class 3 where by som e childre n belie ve that it is go o d to have rule s because they pro v ide so me t hing to fo llow whilst othe rs feel co nst raine d by them . Ro ss say s ?the Charte r sucks? and So phie , who se overall belo nging to scho o l is low, com plains that ?I alre ady kno w it. I do n?t like to l o ok at it.? Intere st ingly So phie im plie s that the rule s of the schoo l are so ubiquit o us that co mm unic at io n in this way is unne c e ssary . Despite So phie ?s com me nts, howe ve r, the div ide is notic e ably by gende r. Table 6 - 9 illust rate s that bo y s? po sit iv e ident ific at ion with the Chart er is lo we r gene rally than fo r girls but no ne t he le ss it dro ps notic e ably furt he r for bo y s with low belo nging. It is appare nt the re fo re that bo y s? relat io nships with rules and their com m unic at io n direc t ly relat e to their feelings of well- be ing and inclusio n. Table 6 - 10 highlight s the co nne ct io n betwee n cult ure and behav io ur illust rat ing how bo y s whom the teache r perce ive s to behav e relat iv e ly po o rly are least favo urable to the Chart e r. Despite this the overall analy sis in Chapte r 5 indic at e d that behav ing well is so cially bene fic ial, highlight ing the diffe re nc e betw ee n perce pt io n and realit y . 2 32 Boys Girl s Overall The Chart e r Overall The Chart e r High belo nging Medium belo nging Low belo nging Table 6-9 The Charter - Belonging by Gender - Year 5 & 6 - School A Boys Teache r?s perce pt io n of bo y ?s behav io ur Chart e r Hi g h Medi u m Low Table 6-10 Boys? Identification with the Charter by High, Medium and Low perceived behaviour (by teacher) - Year 5 & 6 - School A By co nt rast girls are on the who le mo re acce pt ing of rule s and their comm unic at io n and there fo re a girls? belo nging and hence inclusio n are perhaps less dete rm ine d by the exist e nc e of autho rit y and bo undarie s. If howev e r, the respo nse s of the Turt le girls can be take n as a gene ral indic at io n of how yo unge r girls feel then the stro ng relat io nship sho w n with belo nging wo uld indic at e that 2 33 gir ls warm to the exist e nce of rules as they get olde r. Consiste nt ly girls state that the no tic e ?Kee ps us safe,? indic at ing a sense of pro te c t io n which was ment io ne d in 6.2 .2 abo ve . 6.5.2 The School S Code Figure 6-12 The School S Code Com pare d with the Schoo l A Chart e r, the Scho o l S Co de sh ow n in Figure 6 - 12 is a mo re pro m ine nt ly display e d set of scho o l rule s lo cat e d in the schoo l hall. Reco gnit io n and unde rst anding varie s from 67% to 100 % betwe e n the yo unge r and olde r classe s, which is co nside ra bly highe r than Scho o l A. Howev e r, the respo nse s of the childre n are co nsiste nt with Schoo l A, where by posit iv e ident ific at io n with the display is less fo r the boy s. Sim ilarly , mirroring Schoo l A, girls? po sit iv e ident ific at io n incre ase s with age and it is also clear that older boy s in the oute r so cial circle are most fav o urable to the rules at bo th scho o ls. The olde r Barrac udas are mo re co nsc io us of the im pac t of rule s on their daily liv e s. Bethany rem ark s that , ?we fo llow rule s but som e t im es it?s hard,? while Oscar say s that rules make him feel secure . The bo y s cert ainly also becom e less incline d to wards the rule s as they get olde r, altho ugh the boy s in the oute r social circle are com parat iv e ly mo re favo urable , mirro ring Scho o l A. Com paring po sit iv e ide nt ific at io n with the olde r bo y s? and girls? overall belo nging ( Table 6 - 11 ) , there are som e key diffe renc e s with Schoo l A. The boy s expre ss great er affi nit y overall at Schoo l S altho ugh po sit iv e ident ific at io n sim ilarly dro ps off fo r bo y s exhibit ing lo w belo nging. This pro bably indic at e s the so cial nature appare nt in Schoo l S. Girls again are mo re fav o urable but po sit iv e 2 34 ident ific at io n relate s em phat ic ally to high belo nging, sugge st ing that overall belonging is stro ngly relat e d to cult ural alignment in a mo re reso unding way than in Scho o l A. Boys Girl s Overall Scho o l S Co de Overall Scho o l S Co de High belo nging Medium belo nging Low belo nging Table 6-11 Identification with the School S Code by High, Medium and Low belonging boys and girls - Year 5 - School S 6.5.3 Bullying notice at School S ?It says don?t be mean.? Figure 6-13 The bullying notice at School S 2 35 Altho ugh rule s hav e been sho w n to be least po pular with bo ys in both scho o ls, the Schoo l S bo y s relat e much mo re to the bully ing no tice than they do with the Schoo l S Co d e , fo r exam ple . Bully ing is clearly an emo t iv e subje c t and the notic e evoke s mixe d react io ns. Ro sie say s that it ?m ake s me sad and happy ? meaning that she is sad because it rem inds her that bully ing exist s but happy that it is take n serio usly and effo rts are made to prev e nt it from happe ning. Bro o ke repo rt s that she was bullie d fo r five years. Fo r all childre n, po sit iv e ident ific at io n incre ase s towards the oute r social circle . Fo r boy s, on the othe r hand, it is po sit iv e ly linke d to tho se in the lo w learni ng gro up and tho se who m the teache r perce ive s to be of lo we r abilit y . This indic at e s that the definit io n of achiev eme nt and abilit y may pro v ide a basis fo r bully ing an d in this sense gro uping may a gain be seen to be count e rpro duc t iv e fro m the po int of view of inclusio n. 6.5.4 Review Childre n?s respo nse s to the comm unic at io n of rule s gene rally illust rat e d co nsistent patt e rns which prev aile d over diffe re nc es in aest het ic s. Ho wev e r, the great e r reco gnit io n in Schoo l S do es appear to be linke d with sty le and lo cat io n, but also mo re co nsist e nt refe re nc e in assem blie s. Childre n ident ify ing stro ngly with rule s gene rally linked this to feelings of security and safet y and po sit ive ident ific at io n increase d to wards the outer so cial circle in bo th schoo ls. The im po rt ance of the env iro nm e nt as the third teacher , de sc ribe d by Nicho lso n ( 20 05 ) , in this case signific ant ly relat e s to adult arbit rat io n of the child?s so cial wo rld. While this might seem like a negat ive ro le in light of Ro usse au?s (200 4) co nt e nt io ns fo r exam ple , rathe r than being reje c te d by the childre n, on the who le the existe nc e and comm unic at io n of rule s is welcom e d, part ic ularly as childre n get olde r. On the who le co nce rns of security appe ar to prece de achiev em e nt . Within this overall pict ure , specific ally boy s are less fav o urable part ic ularly as their belo nging decline s. The negat iv e react io n to these rule s of bo y s perce ive d to behav e least well is po te nt ially evide nce that whet he r explic it or no t, rule s are ofte n phy sic ally define d. It is quit e feasible from the prece ding discussio n that these are childre n who are perce ive d to behav e poo rly and fo r whom no n - pre sc ript iv e design princ iple s, like tho se inco rpo rat e d in the learning island, may w ell be bene fic ial. 2 36 6.6 Children?s relationships with traditional design features Chapt e r 2 pro po se d the idea that the legacy of Vict o rian schoo l design dete rm ine s a great deal of the psycho lo gic al schoo l env iro nm e nt still in existe nc e to day . In one respec t th e operat io n of the schoo l is part ly guide d by its phy sic al fo rm sending out message s relat ing to co nt ro l and orde r. Chapt e r 5 co nclud e d that many of these message s are sublim inal and dete rm ine som e of the im po rt ant perce pt io ns of the teache r. This sect io n loo k s at ho w mo re tradit io nal feat ures like the scho o l hall, the playgro und and the library relate to childre n?s belo nging and inclusio n. 6.6.1 The hall floor at School S T he hall was an inte gral part of Ro bso n?s (18 77 ) Bo ard schoo ls and has gene rally prev aile d in schoo l design ev er since . The argum e nt fo r open plan schoo ls was base d on the prem ise that open space s lead to free dom and discov e ry suppo rt ing inde pe nde nt learning yet, as Bro gde n (200 7) rem ark s, these space s became mo re rest ric t iv e than seen in enclo se d classro om s. The hall is ano t her exam ple of how an open space is gene rally heav ily co nt ro lle d and the po te nt ial social inte rac t io n is curt aile d. First ly it appe ars from the childre n?s respo nse s that the hall at Schoo l S is gene rally dislik e d. Childre n indic at e that the hall floo r, sho w n in Figure 6 - 1 4 , is a sym bo l of lo ng, tiresom e , unco m fo rt able asse m blie s. Assem blie s are a tradit io nal metho d of who le scho o l com m unic at io n which, acco rding to Pete rso n & Deal (200 2 ) , carrie s a specific cult ural and social signific anc e . While taking part in the asse m bly represe nt s part ic ipat io n in the wide r scho o l comm unit y , there is also an elem e nt of social training of the childre n. Elias & Berk (200 2 ) note the abilit y to sit quie t ly , list e n and to sho w patie nce and resp ec t are behav io ural trait s which co nt inue to be value d and im po rt ant in childre n?s self - re gulat io n. Altho ugh assem blie s they are ofte n no longe r a daily occurre nce , they rem ain a cent ral part of a scho o l ro ut ine and ?m ay be seen as a means of expre ssing th e sense of comm unit y which makes up the schoo l (Po llard, 198 5 , p.1 25 ) .? 2 37 Figure 6-14 The hall floor at School S In Scho o l S, the childre n sit in class line s with the yo unge st childre n at the fro nt of the hall and Year 6, who will have benche s to sit on, at the back. The im age show n to children during the study depic t e d the detail of the parque t floo r and the response s im plie d that the childre n are intim ate with how it loo ks and feels. The teache rs sit aro und the outside of the hall on plast ic chairs, alo ngside their classe s, and able to lo ok alo ng the rows. Remem be ring Tanya?s draw ing in Chapt e r 4, unsurprisingly the childre n at School S reve al that their expe rie nce s relat e to bo re dom and discom fo rt . Charle y say s that yo u ?kee p gett ing up and do wn? and Megan mo re dire c t ly says ?I do n?t like assem blie s.? It is unde rst oo d that the so cialisat io n ro le of schoo ls will not alway s be seen favo urably by childre n who may feel co n st raine d by cert ain scho o l pract ice s like asse m blies. In addit io n there are co nce rns abo ut dirt ine ss, slippe rine ss and dange r. Em ily rem ark s that the flo o r is ?a bit dirty ?, and Paige ment io ns that she? trippe d up once .? Josh com plains that ?Yo u hurt yo ur se lf. ? T able 6 - 1 2 indic at e s that girls who, overall, exhibit low belo nging to the phy sic al scho o l, are part ic ularly disinc line d towards the hall floo r. Suppo rt ing this analy sis, there is a no tice ably lo w 2 38 posit ive ident ific at io n from girls who perce ive their behav io ur to be poo r; it has been sho w n by Kelle tt (200 5 ) that bo re dom can elicit behav io ur fo r which childre n may be very public ly to ld off. Boys Girl s Overall Hall Flo o r Overall Hall Flo o r High belo nging Medium belo nging Low belo nging Table 6-12 Identification with the hall floor by High, Medium and Low belonging boys and girls - Year 5 - School S Ne v e rt he le ss, co nside ring the class so cial circle, girls? lev e l of ident ific at io n with the hall floo r do es no t refle c t their so cial po sitio n where as b o y s on the othe r hand tell a diffe re nt story . Table 6 - 1 3 indic at e s that the hall floo r and what it sym bo lise d was mo st po pular with the boy s in the oute r so cial circle . Po sit iv e ident ific at io n is also evide nt from the boy s whom the teache r perce iv e s to hav e lo w abilit y who, in Chapt e r 4, were also show n typic ally to be less so cially cent ral. Boys Girl s All im age s Hall flo or All im age s Hall flo or Cent re Middl e Out er Table 6-13 Identification with the hall floor across the social circle - Year 5 Boys and Girls - School S 2 39 Unsurprisingly the im age is equally unpo pular with the yo unge r childre n and it is visible that , once again, it becom e s mo re popul ar, or at least less unpopular, with boy s on the oute r so cial circle . The im plic at io n is that , specific ally from a so cial perspe c t ive , bo y s on the so cial edge s can fav o ur space s which promo t e co mm unal who le schoo l activ ity . The assem bly cert ainly is a mo re so cially ano nym o us expe rie nc e and has a stro ng adult co nt ro lling prese nc e . Base d on the social inte nsit y of the Barrac udas repre se nt e d in Chapt e r 5 and the refe re nc e s to fight ing and bully ing in Chapt e r 3, this is a relat iv e ly safe , co nt ro lle d so cial spac e . It can also be seen as a place which childre n do no t asso c iat e with hav ing to do wo rk and it may even offe r an alte rnat ive to learning space s public ly orie nt e d aro und abilit y . 6.6.2 The juniors playground at School S Figure 6-15 The Juniors' playground at School S T he play gro und is a feat ure as syno nymo us with scho ols as the classroo m or the asse m bly hall and was a requirem e nt of elem e nt ary scho o ls fo llow ing the 1870 Act (Seabo rne & Lo we , 197 7 ) . The play gro und is typic ally where one might expec t childre n to feel the mo st unsupe rv ise d and, as such, the so cial inte ract io n to be mo re free ly dete rm ine d by the childre n. This com pare s with the hall in which inte rac t io n is co nt ro lle d and po ssibly curt aile d. It may also be expect e d that childre n who are least academ ic ally incline d will ident ify stro ngly with the play gro und; an escape in othe r wo rds. 2 40 The junio r play gro und at Scho o l S show n in Figure 6 - 15 is a tarm ac ke d area acce ssible from the Year 5 and Year 6 classroom s and bo rde ring the schoo l field. The area co nt ains vario us markings indic at ing a foo t ball pitch and tennis co urt s, altho ugh there are no nets. On the edge of the play gro und by the schoo l field there is a circular bench surro unding a tree . Tree s also line one edge of the play gro und, running alo ngside the perimet e r fence . When the childre n refe r to the play gro und , co mm e nt s tend to relat e to spo rt s. Bethany ment io ns that ?we play tennis, and every t hing? and endo rse s the prev io us appraisal of the class as a very phy sic al, spo rt y gro up. Less comm o n than refe re nce s to spo rt were sugge st io ns abo ut the social oppo rt unit y prese nt e d by play t ime . Paige say s that yo u ?see frie nds and play ? which indic at e s that she eithe r likes to meet with childre n from othe r classe s or she stro ngly diffe re nt iat e s betwe e n the so cial inte rac t io n in the class and that of the play gro und. In add it io n there is also a sugge st io n of pride at the facilit ie s offe re d by the schoo l expo sing ho w a sense of ident ity can be deriv e d fro m the phy sic al schoo l: Sally claim s that ?because of the paint we play gam e s that othe r schoo ls can?t .? Sally ?s co mme nt als o indic ate s the stre ngt h of exclusiv it y show n by gro ups childre n feel they belo ng to (Tajfe l & Turne r, 1979 ) . Intuit iv e ly , one might suppo se that the most so cially cent ral childre n and the childre n who feel most co nst raine d ind oo rs wo uld be favo urable to the play gro und space . The play gro und, altho ugh no t entire ly unregulat e d, is where the childre n can free ly express their so cial play and in this respec t it is unde rst andable that the childre n?s perce pt io ns of the space might be r efle c te d by their so cial po sit io ns. Boys Girl s Overall Junio r Play gro und Overall Junio r Play gro und Cent re Middl e Out er Table 6-14 Identification with the Juniors? playground across the social circle - Year 5 Boys and Girls - School S 2 41 Table 6 - 1 4 does illust rat e this po int by show ing that po sit iv e ident ific at io n wi th the play gro und dro ps in the oute r so cial circle fo r boy s, and mo re mark e dly , fo r girls. Howe ve r, rathe r than being a place fo r the childre n who are less academ ic ally able and perhaps less happy in fo rm al learning env iro nm e nt s, the childre n?s ident ific at io n demo nst rat e s the oppo site . Childre n?s respo nse s sugge st that tho se ident ify ing mo st po sit iv e ly are typic ally the ones who co uld be describe d as illustrat ing the ?best ? qualit ie s, acade m ic ally and behav io urally . Year 5 girls, fo r exam ple , who ident ify least with the play gro und, demo nst rat e the lo west perce ive d abilit y and behav io ur. For Year 5 boy s and girls the play gro und is also dire ct ly linke d with expre ssio ns of high happine ss learning, which indic ate s that feelings in the classro om can overflo w in to the mo re social, com m unal aspe c ts of the scho o l. It is arguable that the teache r, as the perso nificat io n of the schoo l cult ure , is som e ho w om nipre se nt and that a child?s well- be ing begins in the classroo m . Table 6 - 1 5 rev e als an even stro nge r relat io nship betwe e n the girls? overall feelings of belo nging to the scho o l and their ident ific at io n with the play gro und. Girls with the highe st belo nging ident ify most pro fo undly with the play gro und while the girls with the lo we st overall belo nging relat e to it less than they wo uld to othe r aspe ct s of the phy sic al scho o l. This indic ate s that a po we rful co nside rat io n fo r girls and their well- be ing at schoo l is th eir outdoo r so cial space endo rsing the co nclusio ns of Chapt e r 4 which discusse d the im po rt anc e of outdoo r furnit ure . Bo y s, on the othe r hand, ident ify with the play gro und mo re than the majo rity of othe r schoo l feat ure s. Altho ugh this decline s as their overall belo nging decline s, it rem ains relat iv e ly high. The study rev e als that boy s? posit iv e ident ific at io n with the play gro und is mo re resilie nt to the influe nc e of po pularity and belo nging. In co nt rast with the olde r girls, the play gro und is po pular wit h the Panda girls with the lo west perce ive d behav io ur and low perce pt io ns of abilit y . This is what may naturally be expe c te d, as pro po se d in the opening to this sect io n, and im plie s that childre n who do no t fit into the scho o l cult ure gradually begin to fe el they hav e no so cial territ o ry . 2 42 Boys Girl s All im age s Junio r Play gro und All im age s Junio r Play gro und High belo nging Medium belo nging Low belo nging Table 6-15 Identification with the Juniors? playground by High, Medium and Low belonging boys and girls - Year 5 - School S 6.6.3 The library at School A Chapt e r 4 dis cusse d the hist o ric co nnec t io n betw e e n bo o ks and scho o ls and sugge st e d that childre n who like reading bo oks or like to be in the library will pro bably ident ify po sit iv e ly with the cult ure of the schoo l. The rese arc h prese nte d the Scho o l A childre n with an im age of their library and rev eale d result s oppo sit e fro m those predic t e d. In the Turt le s, po sit iv e ident ific at io n gene rally is relat ed to perce pt io ns of go o d behav io ur rathe r than perce pt io ns of ability ; Table 6 - 1 6 sho w s the respo nse s of the childre n to the im age of the library base d on their teache r?s perce pt io n of their behav io ur and ability . By com pariso n, in Class 3, the library is mo st po pular w ith the girls and co nsiste nt with rese arc h which highlight s bo ys? relativ e lack of inte re st in reading (Go ldbe rg & Ro ssw e ll, 2002 ) . This is co nt ribut e d to by the generally low belo nging of the Year 6 boy s which is very evide nt in their respo nses to the library . 2 43 All ch ild r en All ch ild r en Perce pt io n of behav io ur Perce pt io n of abilit y Hig h High Medi u m Medi u m Low Low Table 6-16 Identification with the library by High, Medium and Low perceived behaviour and ability (by the teacher) - Year 1 & 2 ? School A As a co nt inuat io n of the relat io nship sho w n by the Turt le s, the girls in Class 3 dem o nst rate the great e st po sit ive ident ific at io n if they or the teache r perce iv e their ability to be low. Furt he rm o re Chapt e r 5 discusse d the social adv ant age s of being a medium girl and the Class 3 girls relate most to the library if their behav io ur is medium . Bo y s? respo nse s no lo nge r sho w a part ic ular relat io nship with abilit y and it is most appare nt that their ident ific at io n with the library is dete rm ine d by ho w goo d their behav io ur is deeme d to be. This is illust rat e d in Table 6 - 1 7 . 2 44 Boys Girl s Perce pt io n of behav io ur Child Teache r Perce pt io n of ability Child Teache r Hi g h High Medi u m Medi u m Low Low Table 6-17 Identification with the library by High, Medium and Low perceived behaviour (Boys) and ability (Girls) (child & teacher) - Year 5 & 6 ? School A 6.6.4 The abacus at School A Figure 6-16 The abacus at School A T he abacus at Scho o l A, sh o w n in Figure 6 - 1 6 w as lo cat e d in the Puffins? classroo m which was the ho me fo r a mixt ure of Rec ept io n and Year 1 childre n. As a result, it was clear that some of the Turt le s? respo nse s relat e d mo re to feelings abo ut mov ing up from that class to actual feelings abo ut the abacus. This is consist e nt with the co nt e nt ion made in Chapt e r 4 that , as a rule , a child?s (so cial) asso c iat io n prev ails, supe rse ding funct io n and aest he t ic s. Alex ia ment io ns that ?we co uld 2 45 play ? indic at ing that she was less com fo rt able with a mo re serio us appro ac h to scho o l in the Turt le s class. Charles mere ly said, ?it?s so sad.? 6.6.5 Review T he scho o l feat ure s cov e red by this sect io n hav e range d from outdo o r play areas, to archit ec t ure and obje ct s which can be co nside re d tradit io nal eleme nt s of the phy sic al schoo l. The result s indic at e a num be r of relevant findings. First ly perhaps the schoo l env iro nm e nt is right ly refe rre d to as the third teacher but, while Nicho lso n (20 05 ) speak s of this with pro gre ssiv e mo tive s in mind, the evide nc e is that the third teache r is suppo rt ing a tradit io nal behav io ural cult ure . Within this asse rt io n, it is im plie d that childre n?s well- be ing is predo m inant ly deriv e d from the classro om . The play gro und repre se nt s the prov isio n of supe rv ise d, tho ugh less regulate d so cial space but the implic at io n of the rese arc h is that , by the tim e children are reaching the latt e r years of prim ary schoo l, their social expe rienc e is very clo se ly co nne cte d to their academ ic expe rie nc e . In this way the play gro und do es not pro v ide any so rt of refuge fo r childre n who are perce iv ed less fav o urably because their so cial stat us has become linke d with their classroo m stat us. A loss of so cial territo ry in play areas there fo re is predic t e d as a result of classro om dynam ic s. It wo uld appe ar that othe r areas, like the hall and the library , fo r exam ple offe r a mo re so cially ano nym o us adult co nt ro lled env iro nme nt , with which childre n of lo we r academ ic self- co nc e pt s ident ify mo re . It is rele v ant that the girls with lo w abilit y and who are less cent ral find an incre ase d pleasure , or escape , in boo ks. Fo r th e olde r bo y s it is no table that this sym bo l of scho o l might be mo re asso c iate d with behav io ur than abilit y, and mo re e m phat ic ally base d on the teache r?s perce pt io n of the child rathe r than the child?s. Po te nt ially this is an im po rt ant insight into why bo y s are seen to be less enthusiast ic abo ut reading and ho w the blurring betw ee n ability and behav io ur manife st s itse lf. 6.7 Children?s relationships with inanimate features In Chapt e r 4 the po ssibility was raise d that archit ec t ure is remo ve d fro m the expe rie nc e o f the child to the po int that its co nt ribut io n to a child?s well - be ing may have been exagge rat e d. Chapte r 5 did sugge st that cert ain childre n are draw n towards inanim at e objec t s or place s and the belo nging studie s prese nt exam ple s of feat ure s being signifi c ant fo r childre n who are not so cially cent ral. This is rele v ant there fo re to co nce rns of belo nging and inclusio n. 2 46 Altho ugh this thesis is generally not invo lve d in the fundam e nt al requirem e nt s of a schoo l building such as struc t ural qualit y , air quality , tem pe rat ure and light , there is evide nc e that cert ain of these building feat ure s are appro priat e d by childre n fo r play and territo rial purpo se s. Medd?s (19 98 ) obse rv at io n of this phenom e no n led to the no oks and crannies appro ac h to Eveline Lowe and Finm e re Schoo l. 6.7.1 The chimney Figure 6-17 The chimney at School A T he chim ne y at Schoo l A, illust rat e d in Figure 6 - 17 , prov ok e d comm e nt s like ?a nice warm fire but a wo lf might co me do wn the chim ne y ?, and Ro by n said ?it scare d me when I was litt le .? As childre n get o lde r com me nt s appear to beco me less im aginat ive and are replac e d by lo gical assoc iat io ns with the chim ne y ?s funct ion, safe ty and co ndit io n. Conno r co m plains that ?balls get stuck there ,? and Danie lle rem ark s on its aest het ic s: ?it loo ks like it?s bro ke n.? Base d on childre n?s obse rvat io ns, the study sugge st s fo r the yo unge r childre n that archit ec t ural feat ure s can have a po te nt ially fairyt ale co nt ribut io n to the scho o l?s aest he t ics bringing with it hero e s and villains; sim ply , stim ulant s to the im aginat io n. Altho ugh on balanc e it is relat iv e ly unpo pular, Year 1 bo y s show a part ic ular inclinat io n towards the chim ne y . 2 47 Despite this, if the olde r childre n?s po sit iv e ident ific at io n is rev ie w e d acro ss the class social circle , as in Table 6 - 18 , belo nging is relat iv e ly greate r in the oute r circle . The co nt rast with the so cial cent re is mo st pro no unc e d fo r the girls and the result s also sugge st that there is an incr e ase in po sit ive ident ific at io n by girls with lo we r self- c o nce pt s and lo we r belo nging to scho o l overall. This was ident ifie d at a mo re gene ral lev e l in Chapte r 5. Boys Girl s All im age s Chim ne y All im age s Chim ne y Cent re Middl e Out er Table 6-18 Identification with the chimney across the social circle - Year 5 & 6 Boys and Girls ? School A No t ic e ably fo r the boy s, there is a stro ng co nne c t io n betw ee n posit ive ident ificat io n and bo y s who expre ss low happine ss abo ut schoo l, as illust rated in Table 6 - 19 . All childre n Expre sse d happine ss aro und schoo l Chim ne y Hi g h Medi u m Low Table 6-19 Identification with the chimney by High, Medium and Low expressed happiness around school - Year 5 & 6 - School A 2 48 6.7.2 The crocodile step T he old crum bling step in the Schoo l A play gro und ( Figure 6 - 18 ) elicite d a varie ty of respo nse s. It is no table that the olde r childre n in Class 3 refe r mainly to the aest he t ics of the step or to the safe t y aspe ct s of hav ing a bro ke n step. Vict o ria say s ? it?s o ld and no t nice to loo k at ? and Geo rgia describe s it as ?wet and broke n.? Childre n appe ar to be co nsc io us of the age of feat ure s of the schoo l but this is ment io ned in relat io n to co ndit io n and no t nece ssarily indic at ing a desire fo r newne ss. This is co nsist e nt with the findings of PWC (20 07 ) . In fact Burke , fro m a hist o rian?s perspe c t iv e , quo te s Pete r Blunde ll - Jo ne s who sugge st s inst e ad that a scho o l deriv e s a co m ple x and meaningful charact e r fro m its age and change s of use ov er tim e . ..... the fabr ic is em be dde d with mem o rie s and past enco unt e rs, an accum ulat io n of gest ure s which has pro v ided co nt inuity betw ee n generat io ns ..... allo w s fo r all kinds of inte rpre t at io n and prom pts vario us delibe rat e or accide nt al redev e lo pm e nt s (200 6 , p.1 1 ) . The Turt le s signify a quit e diffe re nt relat io nship with the step by refe rring to play : Ro be rt im me diat e ly say s ?Croc o dile s!? which Laure n clarifie s by say ing ? We play cro co dile s. It sho uld be bigge r .? Figure 6-18 The crocodile step at School A Crocodiles is a gam e in which childre n who are not on the step are croco diles and the childre n who are on the step avo id being caught and beco m ing a croco dile . The respo nses tend to co nfirm the suppo sit io n made in Chapt e r 3 that the step represe nt s im po rt ant territo ry , espe c ially fo r the 2 49 Year 2 girls. It is evide nc e of ho w a very funct io nal archit e c t ural feat ure is creat ive ly inco rpo rat e d into play and take s on a part ic ular so cial ro le . Boys Girl s Overall Cro co dile Step Overall Cro co dile Step Cent re Middl e Out er Table 6-20 Identification with the crocodile step across the social circle - Year 1/2 Boys and Girls ? School A As a so cial feat ure which appe ars to be territo rial, po sit iv e ident ific at io n dim inishe s co nside rably to wards the edge of the social circle , show n in Table 6 - 2 0 . The decline in po pularit y is mo st evide nt fo r the girls on the oute r social circle . Po sit iv e ident ific at io n is linke d with co nfide nt , well- be hav e d and so cially cent ral girls with high belo ng ing. Altho ugh it is very po pular with boy s in the so cial centre it tends also to be link e d to tho se with the lowe st belo nging. This relat io nship is detaile d in Table 6 - 2 1 and demo nst rat es that bo y s exhibit the oppo sit e patte rn from usual in that posit ive ident ific at io n incre ase s with lo we r belo nging and sugge st s there fo re that the appe al is not necessarily social and may deriv e from the step?s aest he t ic qualit ie s. Jame s discusse d in detail the step as Capt ain Mo rphus? headquart e rs and the im aginat iv e wo rld which the step offe rs at play t im e . The table also illust rat e s girls? ident ific at io n with the step and sugge st s how being inv o lv e d in so cial inte rac t io n is fundam e nt al to their sense of well - be ing. 2 50 Boys Girl s All im age s Cro co dile step All im age s Cro co dile step Hi g h bel on g i n g Medi u m bel on g i n g Low bel on g i n g Table 6-21 Identification with the crocodile step by High, Medium and Low belonging boys and girls - Year 1 & 2 - School A W he n these result s are com pare d with the Schoo l S Year 1 & 2 respo nse s to a perso nal ?po sse ssio n? like the co at ho ok, the oppo site result can be seen in which girls? posit iv e ident ific at io n is evide nt fo r tho se with low belo nging and bo y s? po sit iv e ident ific at io n is most no table fo r high belonging bo y s . This sugge st s that issue s of owne rship fo r girls may transfe r from social owne rship to perso nal ownership fo r girls as belo nging decline s and the othe r way ro und fo r bo y s. Ho wev e r, this wo uld require furt he r inv e st igat io n. Despite rem em be ring Crocodiles, Class 3?s comm e nts indic at e that the im pact of this feat ure has change d with age. It no lo nge r has such a no tic e able so cial funct io n and it is generally less po pular acro ss the who le so cial circle . The outer girls are least keen, perhaps rem em be ring prev io us feelings of exclusio n. 6.7.3 The wall vent at School A T he cro co dile step repre sent e d an archite c t ural feat ure which had been appro priat e d by the Turt le childre n and ov erall was most po pular with the girls. A sim ilar feat ure which div ide s the 2 51 Turt le s class by gende r is the air vent on the kitche n wall in the play gro und, show n in Figure 6 - 1 9 . In this case it is po pular with bo y s and very unpo pular with the girls . Figure 6-19 The wall vent in the playground - School A So me of the olde r childre n hav e a pract ic al view : Geo rgia, think ing aest he t ic ally , maint ains that ?it ruins the wall,? and So phie asks whet he r it co uld be hidde n. Sam , on the othe r hand, po int s out that yo u can ?sm e ll the fo od? and Charle s say s that ?you can warm up.? In the Turt le s class, the majo rit y of the bo ys who discusse d the vent , ho wev e r, talk abo ut sho ut ing thro ugh it or lo oking thro ugh it to see Mrs Curt is. It is a sim ilar exam ple of ho w funct io nal archit e c t ure is creat iv e ly used and in this case , ho w thi s use can be div ide d quit e clearly alo ng age and gende r line s. The vent tends to be po pular with bo y s with high self - c o nc e pts, ability - w ise and behav io urally , altho ugh the teache r?s perce pt io ns tend to be lo we r in bo th respe c t s. It is also no table that the child?s expre ssio n of lo w happine ss whilst learning and high happine ss aro und scho o l are bo th fact o rs in po sit ive ident ificat io n. In relat io n to the social circle the vent is mo st po pular with the cent ral boy s and ident ific at io n is no tic e ably great e r fo r bo ys exhibit ing low overall belonging to scho o l, show n in Table 6 - 2 2 . It 2 52 would appe ar to be a boy ?s idea of fun and naught ine ss with an indic at io n th at it is a react io n to autho rity , as was co ncluded fo r the gate rele ase earlie r in the chapt e r (p. 212). Boys All im age s Wall Vent Hi g h bel on g i n g Medi u m bel on g i n g Low bel on g i n g Table 6-22 Identification with the wall vent by High, Medium and Low belonging - Boys - Year 1 & 2 - School A 6.7.4 The School S playground wall It ?s a wall where yo u can?t clim b. Sev e ral im age s at Schoo l S, including the pict ure of the play gro und wall in Figure 6 - 20 and of the hall raft e rs, prov ok e d comm e nt s like Prit e sh ?s which describe frust rat io n at a phy sic al oppo rt unity being offe re d but outlawe d by rule s. Ho we ve r, it wo uld seem too tem pt ing fo r som e: Jo sh adm it s that he like s ?clim bing up.? 2 53 Figure 6-20 The playground wall at School S Bo y s appe ar to be split in their feelings towards it and the study rev e als that it is pro fo undly unpo pular with year 1 bo y s whilst co nside rably po pular with Year 2 bo y s . The overall belo nging to scho o l of Year 2 boy s at Scho o l S is co nsiderably lo we r but the im age of the play gro und wall is a go o d exam ple of a co nt radic t io n to this trend: it is the seco nd mo st po pular feat ure of the Year 2 boy s. Ho wev e r, it is last on the list of the Year 1 bo y s which sugge st s a react io nary respo nse based on age gro upings. Girls appe ar to be negat iv e towards this feat ure and there is an indic at io n that there is also a react io n to the Year 2 boy s? liking fo r it. Howev e r, girls? comm e nt s do no t expre ss this and relat e inst e ad to the mate rials and its text ure: Broo k e ?s say s ?I do n?t like to uching the brick s,? and ?it make s yo ur hands greasy .? Any relat iv e ly po sit ive ident ific at io n come s fr om girls who expre ss low happine ss learning. 2 54 6.7.5 Review T his sect io n describe s a fundam e nt al diffe re nce betw ee n design and use, and highlight s that if archit e c ts co nside r only design basic s, the childre n?s use will naturally make the designs relev ant to their well - be ing. A great deal of this thesis has pinpo int e d design and use which relate s to adult lay e ring of a cult ure upo n the child. These exam ple s of no ndesc ript archit e ct ural feat ure s indic at e s the inv isible cult ure of childre n and rathe r than being the pr o duc t of the scho o l and its bro ade r com m unity , there are way s in whic h childre n can be the archite c t s of their own well- be ing. Childre n appe ar to use design feat ure s to creat ive ly dev e lo p play which in turn manife st s so cial territo ry and the po te nt ial fo r inclusio n and exclusio n. Feat ure s like the wall vent and the cro co dile step also demo nst rat e that this childhoo d cult ure is one of tradit io n, passe d down betw ee n age gro ups. Mo reo ve r, it wo uld appe ar that the asso c iat e d phy sic al territ o rie s are also inhe ri t e d. The play gro und wall fo r exam ple was very po pular with Year 2 bo y s where as the Year 1 bo y s and the girls demo nst rate d an equal and opposit e react ion. The rev e rse of this occurre d fo r the class car mat and illust rat e s that it is no t only outdo o r space s which beco me aligne d/appro priat e d by bo y s or girls of diffe re nt ages. Equally , the woo de n train is one of the mo st po pular elem e nts fo r the so cially cent ral girls and fo r the cent ral bo y s it is least appe aling. The react ive nature of ident ific at io n is also illust rat e d by the a bility gro up sign at Schoo l S (p. 221 ) which is highly po pular with Year 2 and highly unpo pular with Year 1. This is indic at iv e of subt le territ o ry but it is relev ant that all these exam ple s are fro m the yo unge st class at Schoo l S, a scho o l which has been describe d as a mo re so cially inte nse scho o l. It wo uld appe ar that this relat io nship with the phy sic al schoo l repre se nt s an establishme nt of this so cial cult ure and eleme nt s of hierarc hy with clear evide nce of schoo l gro up ings affe ct ing behav io ur. Finally , the wall vent rev e als that cert ain archit e ct ural feat ure s are ident ifie d with mo st by bo y s who feel less belo nging to the schoo l overall. It is identifiable that these boy s have fo und an outle t fo r cert ain behav io urs which wo uld no t nece ssarily be enco urage d but are relat iv e ly harm le ss, assum ing that Mrs Curt is is no t actually in earsho t . Arguably this type of behav io ur fo rms a react io n to perce ive d co nst raint s of what remains a powe rful schoo l culture . 2 55 6.8 Encouraging inclusion and identity T he well - b e ing mo de l develo pe d in Chapte r 1 late r pro po se d that influe nc ing a child?s perso nal ident it y is depe nde nt on belo nging which in turn is depe nde nt on mult iple facto rs com bining to po sit ive ly influe nc e a child?s perspe ct ive . As prev io usly explain e d, inclusi o n and ident it y are very clo se ly relat e d and Chapte r 1 maintaine d that co nt riv ing eithe r thro ugh design is pro blem at ic al part ic ularly in the abse nc e of regard fo r the day - t o - day dem ands of a child?s well - be ing. While the hall, the play gro und and the librar y might be co nside re d sym bo ls of the schoo l, there is a tradit io n of prov iding mo re graphic al or objec t - base d repre se nt at io ns of ident it y . 6.8.1 Identity symbols Chapt e r 3 obse rve d that sym bo ls of the class, or masco t s, like the turt le at Scho ol A can be used to mo tivat e the child. Manfre d the Bear at Scho o l S, altho ugh he went unm e nt ione d in the studie s in Chapt e r 3, evo k e d som e sim ilar respo nse s. Howev er, the comm e nt s of the class obse rv e d were mo re perso nal than those at Schoo l A. Fo r inst ance Megan claims that she like s to to uch him whilst othe r comm e nts refe r to an im aginat iv e relat ionship which the childre n hav e deve lo pe d: Patrick say s ?I wo n him a medal ? break dancing? and Jam il say s ?he fo llow s me sho pping.? Cert ainly the girls? react io n which links the b ear po sit iv e ly to tho se with lo we r belo nging im plie s that Manfre d may no t be as im bue d with cult ural signific anc e as perhaps the Turtle is in Scho o l A. This is illust rat e d in Table 6 - 2 3 . Boys Girl s All im age s Manfre d All im age s Manfre d Hi g h bel on g i n g Medi u m bel on g i n g Low bel on g i n g Table 6-23 Identification with Manfred the Bear by High, Medium and Low belonging boys and girls - Year 1 & 2 - School S 2 56 Figure 6-21 School badge and cardigan - School A Supe rfic ially girls appe ar to be mo re incline d towards sym bo ls of comm unit y and gro ups. Co nside ring the scho o l badge at Scho o l A ( Figure 6 - 21 ), it is e m phat ic ally linke d to belo nging fo r the yo unge r childre n. Ho we v e r, altho ugh intuit ive ly it sho uld appe al to tho se who are aligne d to the cult ure of the schoo l, it is no table that it is ident ifie d with mo st by the less popular olde r girls, including tho se w ith lo wer self- c o nce pt s or belo nging. This is sho w n in Table 6 - 24. Boys Girl s Overall Scho o l Badge Overall Scho o l Badge High belo nging Medium belo nging Low belo nging Table 6-24 The school badge - Belonging by Gender - Year 5 & 6 - School A Visi bly , less socially cent ral girls or less able girls posit iv e ly ho ld on to these inanim ate com m unal/ sym bo lic im ages. Boy s, on the othe r hand, appe ar to link this type of sym bo lism with 2 57 succe sse s at schoo l. Overall, as might be expe ct e d by no w, tho se whom the te ache r perce iv es to behav e well are the most po sit iv e . Figure 6-22 The School S school logo Com pare d with the Schoo l A lo go , the Schoo l S lo go ( Figure 6 - 22 ) is sim ilarly po pular with their Year 5 co unt e rparts altho ugh in this case it is slight ly mo re so with the boy s than the girls . Po te nt ially this is the pro duc t of the aest he t ic of the sym bo l but it is also wort h po int ing out that the school badge at Scho o l A was dete c t ably wo rn by a girl and in som e case s the childre n knew which rece pt io n child was wearing it. This unde rsco res the comm e nt s made in Chapt e r 5 which ident ifie d that the pho to graphs used in pho t o elicitat io n can evoke a variet y of respo nses; here it is po ssible that the olde r girls with lo we r belo nging and lo we r self co nce pt s were ident ify ing with what it meant to be in rece pt io n mo re than with the badge itse lf. 6.8.2 The crucifix T his crucifix is a highly signific ant sym bo l in Scho o l A and it wo uld be expe c te d that po sit iv e ident ific at io n wo uld repre se nt to som e degre e ho w much the childre n are gene rally aligne d to the schoo l. 2 58 Figure 6-23 The crucifix in the hall way at School A D e spite Schoo l A?s stat us as a Churc h of England schoo l there is only a lim it e d am o unt of religio us im age ry within the schoo l. A religio us who le - sc hoo l asse m bly is run once a week and, thro ugh co nve rsat io n, th e childre n appe ar to be very co nsc io us of religio n fo rm ing a central part of the schoo l. There fo re , co nside ring the childre n?s respo nses to the crucifix pro v ide s an indic at io n of ident ific at io n with this aspe c t of the scho o l etho s and leads to mo re gene ral co nclusio ns abo ut the effe c t of sym bo ls and ident it y . Com me nt s made by the childre n indic at e a com plex mixt ure of feelings to wards this obje ct . It make s som e sad because they reme m be r fam ily membe rs, ofte n very clo se, who hav e died. Othe rs comm e nt that th ey are not religio us, or indic ate how they perce iv e the guiding nature of the obje c t and, by im plic at io n, Jesus, and occasio nally expre ss sadne ss at Jesus? deat h. Michae l say s it is ?no t nice to see the crucifix io n? and Ro by n ment io ns that it is a ?bit glo om y fo r schoo l.? Altho ugh the respo nse is no t nece ssarily po sit iv e , the sym bo lic im po rt anc e of the figure is very evide nt . Making co nclusio ns abo ut what clearly prov ok e s a com plic ate d and co nt radic to ry set of emo t io ns needs to be treat e d care fully . In Clas s 3 result s defy any real inte rpret at io n beyo nd the co nsiste nc y with the yo unge r class in which bo y s are gene rally mo re favo urable . Beyo nd this, by 2 59 the latte r stage s of schoo l, religio n and its expre ssio n thro ugh objec t s appe ars to hav e becom e a perso nal and com ple x issue . In Year 1 and 2 a very dist inc t iv e patt ern em erges fo r tho se childre n who perce ive them se lv es to behav e poo rly , as illust rat ed in Table 6 - 25 . Their averse ne ss to the obje ct goes bey o nd aest het ic s and its ?gloom ine ss? to sugge st that it is seen as ano t he r lev e l of autho rity which may judge the way the child acts. All chil dr en Child?s perce pt io n of own behav io ur Crucifix Hi g h Medi u m Low Table 6-25 Identification with the crucifix by High, Medium and Low perceived behaviour (child) - Year 1 & 2 - School A 6.8.3 The School S Hands Figure 6-24 The School S Hands 2 60 The Schoo l S Hands is a fabric mural show ing the mult i - c o lo ure d hand print s of everyo ne in the schoo l (See Figure 6 - 24 ) . It is a co mm unity sym bo l which hangs in the hall. Oste nsibly , it pro mo te s ident it y and a fello w ship, designe d to inspire to ge t he rne ss and co lle ct iv e achiev em e nt . It has been creat e d by every bo dy and is visible in the mo st co mm unal of areas in the scho o l. The Hands is an exam ple of aest het ic s/ art seeking to co mm unic ate the idea of part ic ipat io n and inclusio n within the schoo l. Com paring it with othe r im age s it is relat iv e ly po pular with the bo y s and the girls of bo th the Scho o l S class e s. Altho ugh it is gene rally po pular fo r all Year 5 childre n this is mo st notable fo r more socially cent ral childre n and po sit iv e ident ific at io n decre ase s acro ss the social circle . Addit io nally Table 6 - 2 6 illust rat e s that girls? po sit ive ident ific at io n with the Scho o l S Hands is reaso nably co nsiste nt where as there is a link to bo y s? overall belo nging in which bo y s with high belo nging are much mo re fav o u rable to it; it wo uld appe ar to hav e a lim ite d galv anising effe c t on low belo nging bo y s. Unlik e boy s, girls with low perce pt io ns of abilit y prefer it. Boys Girl s All im age s Scho o l S Hands All im age s Scho o l S Hands Hi g h bel on g i n g Medi u m bel on g i n g Low bel on g i n g Table 6-26 Identification with the School S Hands by High, Medium and Low belonging boys and girls - Year 5 - School S 2 61 Conside ring the yo unge r Pandas, it is clearly very po pular with the girls and po pular, altho ugh slight ly less so , with the bo y s . Outside of the so cial cent re , boy s are less fav o urable to the Schoo l S Hands, as are bo ys who typic ally sho w lo we r belo nging to the schoo l. Ho wev e r girls in the oute r circle and girls who exhibit lo w overall belo nging are extrem e ly enthusiast ic abo ut the Hands. Ov erall boy s and girls present opposing pict ure s and this type of im age ry po te nt ially has a great er, mo re inclusiv e effe ct on girls com pare d with bo y s. 6.8.4 The friendship bench Figure 6-25 The friendship bench - School A An exam ple of the relat io nship betw ee n so cial inte ract io n and the motiv at i o n fo r inclusio n, base d on the social circle , is the piece of outdoo r furnit ure calle d the friendship bench at Schoo l A depic t e d in Figure 6 - 25 . This is an exam ple of design im bue d with a signific ant and well unde rst oo d message . The sim ple idea is that, if a child feels lo ne ly , they can sit on the bench and some bo dy will com e to play with them . 2 62 The frie ndship bench attem pt s to enco urage inclusive social interac t io n by apply ing a delibe rat e hum an laye r of sym bo lism . In addit io n, its phy sic al fo rm sym bo lic ally is large , to ho ld a num be r of childre n, and em brac ing, as the woo de n side s curv e aro und the childre n sitt ing on it. This is a go o d exam ple of ho w design and cult ural inte nt com bine s. By way of its fo rm , the bench may co nve y message s abo ut inclusio n, but there is addit ionally the verbal comm unicat io n, even fo lk lo re , of its asso c ia t e d prefe rre d behav io urs; a respo nsibilit y share d by adult s and childre n alike . Anecdo t al evide nc e from the childre n during the ident it y card rese arc h and other rese arc h in which the frie ndship bench emerge d, test ify to the friendship bench?s succe ss as a comm unit y sym bo l. So phie , fo r exam ple , say s ?It wo rks; peo ple sit on it when they ?re upse t .? Also its phy sic al co ndit io n do es no t seem to be quest io ne d in the sam e way that childre n were crit ic al of othe r ageing feature s of the schoo l. The woo d is well we at he re d and the carv ing of the nam e Geo rgina, who acco rding to Freddy was the first headt e ac he r, is heav ily worn and fade d. Its so cial im po rt anc e appe ars to com pe nsate fo r its aest he t ic sho rt com ings. Its use ho we ve r goes beyond this basic inte nt of inclus iv e play and the bench is used as a com m unal area fo r children to talk while othe rs use it as a base or stim ulus fo r vario us gam e s. Ro ss, play fully , state s ?We sit chat t ing. Or say, ?yo u love Geo rgina!?? and Alex, from the Turt le s, rev e als im aginat ive play stim ulat e d by the carv ings: ? Yo u can rub cars on eagle s and the rav e n turns into a man .? Chapt e r 3 co nclude d that it had territo rial value fo r the olde r girls and this is indic at e d by the relat ive ly high po sit iv e ident ific at io n with it fo r Class 3 girls. Info rme d by obse rv at io n, in pract ic e it repre se nt s a territo rial po sse ssio n of the olde r class which is clear when the who le scho o l is on the play gro und. The ident ity card exerc ise reve als that this is prim arily the dom ain of the Year 6 girls. Its co v ert territo rial ro le might seem at odds with its overt socially inclusiv e ro le but, ev en tho ugh it is em phat ic ally po pular with the mo re central girls, ov erall it is also mo re po pular than othe r feat ure s fo r the least po pular girls, as indic ate d in Table 6 - 2 7 . On the who le bo y s in the oute r so cial circle ho we ve r relat e no more to this than they do to othe r feat ure s whereas boy s with low belo nging do no t rela t e well at all. This indic at e s again that girls are pro bably mo re incline d to wards this type of sym bolism than bo ys. 2 63 Boys Girl s Overall Frie ndship Bench Overall Frie ndship Bench Cent re Middl e Out er Table 6-27 Identification with the friendship bench across the social circle - Year 5 & 6 Boys and Girls - School A Addit io nally , with bo y s in mind, there is an argume nt that design aim ing to so cially engine e r by ta rge t ing inclusio n is co nt riv e d, and po te nt ially co unterpro duc t ive . It is po ssible that the childre n it aim s to help actually feel less include d because it expo se s them so cially . Lewis, who is in the oute r social circle ident ifie s his mixe d feelings and Harry , hav ing co nside re d the im age , reme m be rs that ?som e t im es peo ple make fun? of him . Relat iv e to othe r feat ure s of the scho o l, ho wev e r, it is co nsist e nt ly po pular and signific ant feature of the schoo l. Boys Girl s Overall Frie ndship Bench Overall Frie ndship Bench High belo nging Medium belo nging Low belo nging Table 6-28 The friendship bench - Belonging by Gender - Year 5 & 6 - School A 2 64 6.8.5 Review O n balanc e the use of symbo lism as a metho d fo r influe nc ing ident it y and inclusio n are like ly to be most effe c t iv e fo r girls. As Paige comm e nt s, refe rring to the Scho o l S lo go , it ?r em inds me of schoo l and the tim e s yo u?ve had.? At vario us po ints the rese arc h highlight s girls? enhanc e d co nne c t io n with the co mmunit y as a who le which would explain why this might be the case . Cert ainly there is an indic atio n that socially exclude d girls and girls with low belo nging will ident ify po s it ive ly with such image s or place s. Bo y s, howev e r, appe ar to be relat iv e ly unaffec t e d by such effo rt s and it is like ly that such sym bo ls repre se nt the aspe c ts of scho o l which originally co nt ribut e d to their lowe r sense of belo nging, po te nt ially exace rbat in g feelings. On the basis of the ev ide nce fro m the study sym bo lism work s in a sim ilar way whet he r expre sse d thro ugh furnit ure , obje c t s or im age ry . It is also signific ant that posit iv e ident ific at io n is ofte n abo ut territo ry which can co nt ribut e to the unde r m ining of inclusio n. These findings also hav e part ic ular rele v ance fo r the pursuit of aest het ic s which to date the thesis has been large ly dism issiv e of in term s of lo nge r term affe c t iv e outcom e s. No tably the illo gic demo nst rate d in the findings of Tajfe l & Turne r (197 9 ) in this part ic ular case override s the lo gic of the well - be ing mo de l. There fo re there is clearly so me sco pe fo r affe ct ing childre n?s belo nging to schoo l, altho ugh base d on the lo nger cycle s of schoo l bui lding this appe ars to rem ain an oppo rt unity as part of the deco rat iv e/ com m unic at ive env iro nme nt rathe r than of archit e ct ure . 6.9 Summary P ro gre ssing on from the inv e st igat io n of part ic ular feat ure s in Chapte r 4, the rese arc h outline d in this chapt e r has mo re c learly div ulge d the unique culture of childho o d, the exist enc e of which was sugge st e d originally in the intro duc t io n to this thesis. Im age s show n to the childre n elicite d evide nce of im aginat io n, and bo th react ive and territo rial behav io ur. Up until now, t he scho o l cult ure has repe ate dly been cite d as the great influe nc e on childre n?s well - be ing yet this relat io nship with the phy sic al schoo l, init ially at least , appe ars to occur inde pe nde nt ly of the schoo l cult ure . Such play - re lat e d activ it y , this the sis su gge st s , is also inde pe nde nt of design, inv o lv ing the creat io n of uses which were nev e r inte nde d. Childre n transfo rme d the broke n old step into the Crocodile Step on which they despe rat e ly try to stay safe from the cro co dile - infe ste d wate rs belo w , unaw are o f Capt ain Mo rphus? ongo ing fight fo r suprem ac y in his adjac e nt headquart e rs. Furt he r afie ld toy cars are turne d into rav e ns on the frie ndship bench. 2 65 Unint e nde d uses of design feat ure s wo uld seem to be cent ral to the child?s social inte rac t io n. Allo w ing th is unpro vo ke d creat iv it y to take place is of vital inte re st in the light of the Go ve rnme nt ?s creat iv ity agenda and, while the cro co dile step or the gam es surrounding drains intro duc e d in Chapte r 4 might enco urage designe rs to prom ot e this type of creat iv it y , this the sis ident ifie s that enco uraging presc ript io n is the enemy of creat iv ity ; childre n make env iro nm e nt s rele v ant to their well- be ing which, like self- e ste em more specifically (Sulliv an, 1953 ) , may be active ly maint aine d. The alm o st inv isible expe rie nc e of childre n is rev e ale d as a cult ure passe d on thro ugh the years and which is relat e d to the mate rial scho o l much mo re than it is to the discipline of design. Studie s prese nt e d in this thesis pinpo int this as a tim e le ss fac e t of schoo l which has tradit io nally occurre d in the play gro und but, while the behav io ur may occur naturally , its expre ssio n is far from inde pe nde nt of scho o l culture . The discussio n surro unding the play gro und at Scho o l S demo nst rate s that , despit e the opp o rt unity fo r less rigidly regulat e d play , activ it y is surprisingly influe nc e d by childre n?s perce pt io ns of academ ic abilit y , fo r exam ple . Chapte r 5 rev e al e d that teache rs? perce pt io ns of abilit y and behav io ur, and part ic ularly ability gro ups are linke d to childre n?s po pularity and there fo re , while territo rial play may be naturally deriv ed in the childre n, the co nt e xt fo r inclusio n and exclusio n is large ly pro v ide d by the scho o l cult ure . This it seems is the curre nt effe c t of the om nipre se nt third teache r an d in this way well - be ing can be seen to start in the classroom and the piv ot al child - t e ac he r relat io nship. The influe nc e of the cult ure on childre n?s inte rac t io n with the phy sic al schoo l is furt he r appare nt when co nside ring the wall vent and the gate rele ase, illust rat ing ho w boy s are play fully react ing and test ing autho rity . Addit io nally it wo uld seem that schoo ls are inde e d place s of unfulfille d so cial and phy sic al oppo rt unit ie s; lo ng co rrido rs in which the child canno t run, a chair which canno t be rocke d, the Schoo l S play gro und wall which canno t be clim be d and the hall raft e rs from which the ro pe s have been remov e d. These frust rat ions detrim e nt ally affec t ident ific at io n with the scho o l cult ure and must be a co nsiderat io n of future design. Not only do space s and furnit ure dire c t well- be ing; the evide nc e from this chapte r sugge st s that the co mm unic at iv e scho o l env iro nm e nt indic at es clearly to childre n what is co nside re d to be go o d and aspe c t s of the mate rial schoo l are appro priat e d fo r the achiev em e nt of these ends. Appro priat io n of com fo rt and spo rt ing sym bo ls was typic ally fo und in bo th schools. The env iro nm e nt suppo rt s and ofte n rewards co nfo rm ance and as childre n beco me mo re aligne d to rule s and behav io ural no rm s the childre n?s social outcom e s are sub se que nt ly deriv e d from this cult ure . 2 66 In this chapt e r it has been furt he r establishe d that childre n with a low sense of belo nging and childre n who are so cially rem ot e ofte n respo nd diffe rent ly to the phy sic al scho o l env iro nm e nt , indic at ing great e r affiliat ion with pure ly aest he t ic or funct io nal feat ure s, like the Scho o l A chim ney for exam ple . This appe ars to be a fo rm of refuge from the mo re so cially and cult urally asso c iat e d aspe c t s of the phy sic al env iro nm e nt . Allie d to this is the finding that socially l ess po pular boy s ident ify mo re with the hall, fo r exam ple , than other mo re po pular bo y s offe ring regulat e d and less inte nse so cial inte ract io n and less expo s ure in the sense of acade m ic abilit y . The classroo m, on the othe r hand, is usually laid out base d u po n childre n?s abilit y and judgme nt in this public arena seem s to be the basis fo r so cially exclusi ve behav io urs . Mo re gene rally , t he studie s furthe r rev e al that public gro upings in the pursuit of organisat io n can fundam e nt ally affe ct and unde rm ine well- be ing. In this respe ct one might co nside r that the pure perso nalisat io n of educatio n is a goo d thing because in theo ry public gro uping will not exist in the sam e way . Perhaps this indic at e s one reaso n fo r the childre n?s attrac t io n to techno lo gy which this ch apt e r has po inte d towards. Ho wev e r, as a co nse que nce , the evaluat io n of tradit ional pract ic e and feat ure s of the prim ary schoo l offe rs an alte rnat iv e perspe c t iv e on inclusio n and indiv idualisat io n of schoo l. It has emerge d that many children place great im po rt anc e on stay ing safe and feeling secure and it is easy to fo rge t that childhoo d can be a harsh and physic al exist e nc e . As a co nse que nc e , clearly define d rule s and clo se ne ss to caring adult s hav e been sho w n to be welcom e d by many childre n and repe at e dly po int to wards the im po rt a nc e of the childre n?s relat io nship with their teache r. Ho w wo uld these childre n respo nd in phy sic ally and so cially freer env iro nm e nts in which behav io ur is rede fine d and girls? territo rial behav io ur expre sse d in the play gro und beg ins to be expre sse d in the learning space , fo r exam ple ? These studie s have ident ifie d this space to be the lo cus of well- be ing and prese nt ly do no t appe ar to be the sett ing fo r so cial territory , or owne rship. Refe rring back to the expe rie nc e s of open plan, teachers describe d spending much less tim e with the childre n as they pursued their studies inde pe nde nt ly (Galt o n et al., 1980 ) . This, on the basis of the findings prese nte d in this thesis , is a signific ant fact o r in the failin g of open plan and, as schoo ls take on more of the fam ily ro le , must be a cent ral co nce rn fo r perso nalise d learning. Perhaps th e childre n hav e been co ndit io ne d into this type of cult ure but cert ainly these studie s indic at e that this relat io nship is mo re n o t less signific ant by the latt e r stage s of prim ary schoo l. Fro m a design perspe c t iv e this wo uld appe ar to be a cent ral purpo se of scho o l archit e c t ure . 2 67 The chapt er also indic ate s the im po rt ance of co mm unit y in the study scho o ls and reco gnises attem pt s to creat e env iro nm e nt s which engine e r so cial inte rac t io n or which exude comm unal signific anc e to influe nc e feelings of ident it y and inclusio n. Despit e the co nte nt io n of well- be ing mo de l that these effo rts are like ly to be co nt rive d and hav e litt le po sit iv e ef fe c t on well - be ing, girls do seem to respo nd fav o urably to them; the nam ing of the frie ndship bench fo r exam ple may reco gnise the po te nt ial fo r girls? excluding actio ns in relat io n to play gro und furnit ure and repre se nt an overlay ing of teache rs? wisdom to curt ail this natural phenom e no n. Ho wev e r, whet he r expresse d thro ugh furnit ure or comm unit y sym bo ls, there is equally a risk to som e bo y s? of reinfo rc ing their sense of iso lat io n. A furt he r exam ple of gende r diffe re nc e s when co nside ring the design and cult u re of scho o ls. Despite diffe re nc e s in their lo cal comm unit ie s, their visible social charact e rs and their phy sic al env iro nm e nt s, the findings at bo th schoo ls appe ar to indic at e com mo n aspe c t s of prim ary Educat io n and there fo re comm o n challe nge s to cult ural and phy sic al change . Chapt e r 7 will discuss the ro le of design in suppo rt ing the enric hm ent of the child - te ac he r relat io nship. 2 68 Chapter 7: Discussion - What this means for primary school design T he aim of this thesis h as been to inve st igat e ho w childre n?s relat io nships with their phy sic al schoo l env iro nm e nt explo re d in a so cial and cult ural co nt e xt can sugge st a n alte rnat iv e appro ac h to prim ary scho o l archit ec ture and furnit ure . In this chapt e r I will discuss the im plic at io ns of the rese arc h unde rt ak e n in this thesis in the light of po ssible cult ural and physic al change in prim ary schoo ls, with part ic ular co nside rat io n giv e n to the cent ral child -t e ac he r relat io nship. Co nclusio ns will be prese nt e d as specific recom me ndat io ns fo r the enhanc em e nt of the design brie f fo r new and refurbishe d scho o ls which refle c t child - t e ac he r cent re d design princ iples. 7.1 Introduction As a natio n we are curre nt ly building a signific ant numbe r of new schoo ls upo n which, in acco rdance with many obse rv e rs, Heppe ll et al. (20 04) comm e nt, ?This is welco me news if we are building the right schoo ls, but an acce le rat ing crisis if we are not (p.2) .? In the intro duc t io n to this thesis I describe d the am biguo us sett ing in which the new schoo l building pro gram me s in England and Wale s hav e been init iat e d. The new or refurbishe d schoo ls, it is ho pe d, will transfo rm mainst re am stat e Educat io n in England and Wale s and yet, as this thesis has outline d, there is unce rt aint y abo ut what transfo rm at io n means in schoo ls, ho w it can be realise d, and the ro le design can play . Ident ify ing this to be an is sue a t the design brie fing stage , I highlight e d early in the thesis a co nse que nt design cult ure which is narro w ly fo cuse d on indiv iduals? achie ve me nt , co nce nt rat e s mainly on archit e ct ure , and large ly dist anc e s itse lf from schoo l cult ure . It is this scho o l cult ure , ho wev e r, which wo uld appe ar to sustain schoo l env iro nme nt s ? repre se nt at iv e of our past, not our future (BCSE , 2007 , p.5) .? There fo re I hav e take n a step backwards fro m design to co nside r childre n in their exist ing prim ary schoo l sett ings. Rese arc h has been direc t e d towards bo th the play gro und and the pencil, as two exam ple s, and has reflec t ed the perspe c t iv e s of the childre n i n the study scho o ls by treat ing the phy sic al, so cial and cult ural env iro nme nt as a unifie d expe rie nc e . As a result, the studie s in two co nt rast ing prim ary scho o ls rev e al tensio ns and cont radic t io ns in what scho o ls are being aske d to achiev e and ho w design is co nce ive d to suppo rt these objec t ive s. In 200 4 Blair establishe d the cent ral scho o l design obje c t ive to be the deve lo pm ent of the ? tale nt s 2 69 of each indiv idual yo ung perso n to the fulle st exte nt (para. 5) . ? Ho we ve r, at a philo so phic al lev e l and apply ing t he lo gic of the well - be ing mo de l deve lope d in Chapt e r 1, direc t ing design towards the indiv idual?s learning can be seen to igno re the ov erriding so cialisat io n ro le of schoo ls in which co nce rns of citize nship prev ail. Mo reov e r, on a day - to - day lev e l which t he well- be ing mo de l dete rm ine s sho uld be the predom inant co nce rn of mo re affe c t iv e design, the manage m e nt of large num be rs of childre n pro duc e s schoo ls which are arguably co nce nt rat e d on the organisat io n of learning rathe r than on learning per se. The im p ac t of this ov ersight , evide nt in the histo ric al dev e lo pm e nt of schoo l design prese nt e d in Chapt e r 2, is manife st e d in stat ic , phy sic ally and so cially rest ric t iv e sett ings who se princ iple s of use have large ly endure d fro m the Victo rian Bo ard scho o l era. A n accord b etw e en schoo l pract ic e and the phy sic al sett ing can be seen to define acce ptable behav io ur in phy sic ally and so cially lim it ing term s. While Chapte r 1 no te d the perce iv e d im po rt anc e of pro duc ing creat ive indiv iduals, inst e ad the belo nging studie s in Chapt e r 5 indic at e that curre nt ly , by the tim e childre n reach seco ndary schoo l age, their perspe c t iv es have narro we d and their im aginat io ns are thre at e ne d by the incum be nt lo gic of scho o l organisat io n . Despite the obje c t iv e s of the P rim ary Capit al Pro g ramm e , this I sugge st is the realit y of mainst re am Educat io n in which over 4 millio n prim ary schoo l childre n require com pulso ry educat io n in England alo ne (CIL T , 2009 ) ; in orde r to step fo rw ards Design must there fo re av o id oper at ing within an aspiratio nal vacuum to appro priate ly unde rstand and challe nge schoo l cult ure within its mainst re am co nte x t . 7.2 Expectations of Design Chapt e r 1 discusse d design brie fs which dem and schoo ls to be inclusive , to im pro ve self - e ste em , and to prom o t e ident it y . Furt he rmo re , as the Educat io n and Inspe c t io ns Act of 2006 now place s the respo nsibilit y fo r a child?s well- be ing with the scho o l, White (200 5 ) right fully dem ands a bett e r unde rst anding of well - be ing and it s co nst it ue nt s. I have addre sse d this in the dev e lo pme nt of the well - be ing mo de l illust rat e d below i n Figure 7 - 1 . The mo de l has draw n from a num be r of so urce s and discipline s thro ugho ut the thesis to inte rpre t the co m ple x ity of well - be ing. It s purpo se has been to info rm a realist ic expe ct at ion of design and pro v ide a means of evaluating the po ssibility of effe ct ing cult ural change , if no t transfo rm at io n, describe d late r in Sect io n 7.5 . As such it is prim arily indic at iv e and is no t prese nte d as an exhaust ive mo de l; its lim it at io ns are describe d in Sect io n 7.6 .2 . 2 70 Daily ou t co m e s Sh o rt term ou t co me s Med iu m term out co m e s Lon g term out co m e s The Well-being Model Figure 7 -1 The well - be ing mo de l ? affe ct iv e focus of design ( bo x e d area ) show ing daily outco me s Enjoyment Achievement Social interaction Contribution Participation Knowledge Successes Skills/ Attributes Self-esteem Health Recognition Self- concepts Identification /Belonging Social responsibility Economic well-being Economic Advantage Stimulation Confidence Inclusion Personal identity Social Capital Social Cohesion Expression Social Identity Freedom Relaxation Personal responsibility Effort Control Physical activity Respect Creation Trust Health Relationships Understanding Affection 2 71 Prese nt ing the mo de l, Figure 7 - 1 illust rat e s elem e nts of the daily experie nc e of a child (show n in the boxe d area) and depicts the pro gre ssio n of such expe rie nc e to short , medium and lo ng term outco me s. These will naturally vary in their po sit iv it y . Evide n t in the figure is also the treatm e nt of the lo nger term outcom es as co nside rat io ns of well- be ing beyo nd the indiv idual at a com m unity , natio nal and even glo bal lev e l. Cent ral to the well- be ing mo de l, and there fo re cent ral to th e evo lut io n of this thesis, is the co nce pt of belonging shown in whit e which Chapte r 4 intro duc e d as an indic ato r of establishe d po sit ive sho rt and medium term outcome s. Sim ply , t his sense of belo nging can be unde rst oo d as a fulcrum from which lo nge r term outcom e s are init iat e d. The well - be ing mo de l has info rme d and dire ct e d the rese arc h prese nte d in this thesis by elicit ing fiv e guiding princ iple s relating to the pursuit of well- be ing relev ant to the design of the scho o l?s phy sic al env iro nm e nt: 1. T he re are basic s of design, such as air quality and safet y , which are fundam e ntal and must prece de mo re affe ct ive design effo rt s (Appe ndix 3 ); 2. Affe c t ive design sho uld fo cus on day - t o - day outco me s and no t lo nge r term aspirat io ns; in gene ral these are so cially deriv e d co nce rns ; 3. Ac hie v eme nt i s one aspe c t of the well - be ing mo de l a nd part of a much large r and mo re com ple x entity . Achiev em ent sho uld not there fo re be regarde d as an iso lat e d go al; 4. W e ll - be ing is highly subje c tiv e ; Chapt e rs 1 and 2 exp laine d ho w socie ty ?s expe ct atio ns and schoo l cult ure dire c t the po ssibilit ie s of childre n?s well- be ing to wards desire d outcom e s; 5. Be lo nging, a dev e lo pm e nt of the well - be ing mo de l fo llo w ing init ial prim ary rese arc h, prese nts a rese arc h measure with which to gauge the po ssibilit ie s of childre n?s well- be ing with respe c t to lo nge r term outco me s . By illust rat ing in Chapt e r 1 that influe nc ing lo nger term outco me s is pro blem at ical, the mo de l vindic at e s the do ubt expresse d in the intro duct io n to this thesis when I co nside re d whet he r furnit ure I had designe d co uld po ssibly prom o te childre n?s creat iv it y . Mo re gene rally in scho o l design, I hav e reco gnise d e ffo rt s to influe nc e lo nge r term outcom e s as tend ing to dive rt atte nt io n to wards aest he t ics and the obje ct ive of inspirat io n. This was evide nc e d in the discussio n of curre nt trends prese nt e d in Chapt e r 2 in which the realit y of schoo l design is fundam e nt ally diffe re nt from the uninfo rm e d expe ct at io ns and narro w fo cus of the design brief . Figure 7 - 2 2 72 reinfo rce s this po int by com paring a pro po se d classroom of the future with a scho o l of the 197 0 s; I adv i se a lack of innov at ion and lack of aware ne ss of design beyo nd archit ec t ure com bine s with the aest he t ic, outw ard - fac ing fo cus of the curre nt ly em erging scho o l archite c t ure . Figure 7-2 Classroom of the Future? Comparison with 1970s' design. Photograph. Source: 1,3 & 4 - Studio E; 2 - Saint (1987) In Chapt e r 2 I furt he r pro po se d that ?inspirat io n ? and co nce rns of the building?s env iro nm e nt al perfo rm anc e are supe rse ding the qualit y of childre n?s daily expe rie nc e at schoo l. Within this debat e , I argue d that mo st of these effo rt s to ins pire thro ugh aest het ic s will be lost thro ugh age and fam iliarity as what might be calle d the wo o de n - c lad era of scho o l design is establishe d ; t he transfo rm at io n of E ducat ion will not be achie ve d through aest he t ics. 2 73 The mo de l i s inte nd e d as a large ly obje ct iv e re prese ntat io n of well- be ing yet , beyo nd adding realism by narro w ing the expe c t at io n of design to daily outcome s, it is diffic ult to dete rm ine a meaningful co nt ribut io n witho ut explo ring the subjec tiv e nature of such outcom es. The diffic ult y fo und in apply ing an obje c t iv e mo de l to schoo ls is prese nt in the d ebat e abo ut what child - c e nt re d Educat io n actually is . This co nce pt , em brac ing well - be ing, was describe d in Chapt e r 2 as evo lv ing slow ly over many years and, despit e lim ite d exam ple s of scho o ls which are regarde d as child - c e nt re d, its affe c t iv e obje ct ive s co nt inue to be reflec t e d in expec t at io ns of Design in the dev e lo pme nt new schoo ls. T he Good Day Bad Day study in Chapt e r 3 reve ale d ho w the day - to - day po ssibilit ie s of well- be ing are subje c t to judgme nt s made on behalf of the child co nce rning what is co nside re d right fo r that child and what the scho o l is expec t e d to delive r; goo d test result s fo r exam ple . Hav ing rejec t e d Ro usse au?s (200 4 ) socially and cult urally iso late d view of childho o d in Chapt e r 1, the alte rnat ive subje c t ive perspe c t iv e tends to rende r the child-centred school as a no nse nsical term . Put sim ply , a pare nt of a child in School A may belie ve it is best for their child to do ho me work every eve ning where as a pare nt in Schoo l S may belie ve it is best fo r their child to be play ing with frie nds. Despite im plic at io ns fo r social mo bilit y, both pare nt s may well be right , illust rat ing the term child- centred to be irrec o nc ilable beyo nd UNICE F?s (20 04 ) asse rt io n that schoo ls sho uld act in the best inte re st s of the child . This part ic ular discussio n will be deve lo pe d furt he r with respe c t to the phy sic al scho o l in Sect io n 7.4 .2 in which a child - te ac her cent re d schoo l is discussed as a mo re pract ic al and meaningful obje c t ive . Prim ary schoo ls can be seen to define the po ssibilit ie s of a child?s well- be ing and despit e lo cal diffe re nc e s many aspec t s of childre n?s daily experie nce at schoo l hav e pro ve d comm o n acro ss bo th study scho o ls, base d on a comm o n charac te r of childre n and of P rim ary Educat io n. The belo nging studie s sho we d that as childre n pro gre ss thro ugh prim ary scho o l they becom e so cially mo re discrim inat ing and their relat io nships with peers become mo re inte nse ; they indic at e the im po rt anc e of the teache r, of gende r, of fr ie nds, of behav io ur, of ability gro ups and, part ic ularly at Schoo l A, the reco gnit ion and reward of achie ve men t . Furt he rmo re, Year 1 and 2 childre n in bo th scho o ls mo re regularly describe d the display of rule s negat iv e ly where as olde r childre n wo uld mo re c o nsiste nt ly describe them as ?som et hing to fo llo w .? The prim ary rese arc h prese nt e d in this thesis suppo rt s the argum e nt that childre n will gene rally co nfo rm to the cult ure in which judgm e nt s co nce rning their best inte re st s are made and Chapt e r 3 obse rv e d t hat many of these value s can be trace d to the comm unit ie s in which the schoo ls are locat e d. 2 74 I hav e pinpo int e d the phy sic al and social nature of childho o d and in Chapte r 2 I refe r to Kytt??s (200 6) discussio n abo ut childre n?s natural pro pe nsity fo r play and inv est igat io n, suppo rt ing Piage t ?s (197 5 ) asse rt io ns. Ho wev e r, returning to the original inte nt io n of this thesis, I fo und scarc e rese arc h which co nside rs this in term s of the phy sic al, so cial and cult ural co nt ex t of their schoo ls. I t is no table that dire c t refe re nc e s childre n ma d e to the phy sic al sett ing with respe c t to their well- be ing were lim ite d. A part fro m stick e rs or tro phie s which Chapt e r 3 describe d as becom ing cult urally charged, studie s in bo th schoo ls po int e d t owards a relat io nship with the phy sic al scho o l which is gene rally nego t iate d thro ugh the so cial and cult ural assoc iat io ns childre n hav e with aspec t s of the sett ing. Sect io ns 7.3 and 7.4 prese nt a discussio n of t he explo rat io n of the child?s vo ice in prece d ing chapt e rs and what this has rev e ale d abo ut th is relat ionship bo th so cially and culturally , leading to an exam inat io n of the im plic at io ns fo r Design ?s meaningful co nt ribut io n set out in Sect io n 7.5 . 7.3 Social influences on children?s use of the physical school 7.3.1 Children?s exertion of territory Im me diat e ly appare nt in Scho o l S, and in later primary rese arc h in Schoo l A, was evide nce suppo rt ing the mo de l?s co nt e nt io n that childre n?s so cial inte rac t io n stro ngly influe nc e s their well- be ing. Nev e rt he le ss the prim a ry rese arc h also illust rate s that play , as it typic ally manife st s itse lf, will no t alway s repre se nt a po sit ive co nt ribut io n to how a child feels. Findings po int towards an ofte n inadv e rt e nt relat io nship betw ee n the schoo l sett ing and the child, in which us e is signific ant ly diffe re nt fro m design inte nt and childre n can be seen to adapt pure ly funct io nal, inanim at e objec t s and aspec t s of archite c t ure for the purpo se s of play . At vario us po int s in the rese arc h childre n refe rre d to manho le cov e rs and steps as co nt ribut o ry to their so cial activ it y , fo r exam ple . Howev e r, these sett ings were no te d thro ugho ut as prov iding the lo cat io n fo r territ o rial so cial behav io ur, indic at ing that the phy sic al env iro nme nt can be seen as a mechanism fo r creat io n and play but also of discrim inat io n and the establishm e nt of so cial hierarc hie s. Thro ugho ut the thesis I have show n that childre n ident ify most with aspec t s of the phy sic al schoo l they are phy sic ally in to uch with, em phasising the expe rie nt ial nature of childre n?s relat io nships with the sett ing and unde rlining the im po rt ance of embrac ing the range of childre n?s sense s thro ugh design. Despit e the histo ric al do m inance of archit e c t ure in scho o l design, when childre n were aske d specific ally about their schoo l env iro nm e nt in th e Take it or Leave it study it was clear that , at a co nsc io us lev e l at least , childre n were less incline d towards archit e ct ure than they were to wards obje c t s (boy s) or outdo o r furnit ure (girls) . I subse que nt ly reve ale d in Chapt e r 6 girls? 2 75 stro ng ident ific at io n with outdo o r furnit ure in which the po sit iv ity of their response s gene rally mirrore d their po pularity with peers , reinforc ing the co nne c t io n with territ ory and so cial hierarc hie s. The Take it or Leave It study furt he r disclo se d how diffe re nt benche s were prefe rre d by diffe re nt ages and it appears that these territo rie s are inherit ed as childre n mov e up through the schoo l. In Scho o l A, the friendship bench was the appare nt territo ry of the olde st childre n in which so cial im po rt anc e clearly to ok prece de nce over mate rials or sty le . Addit io nally , fro m a design perspe c t iv e , there is obse rv at io nal evide nc e to suggest that , where a tradit io nal bench sty le was used, the capac ity of the seat ing and its clearly mark ed bo undarie s can co nt ribute to discrim inat io n by comm unic at ing who is on the bench and who is no t. On the othe r hand a less define d design co uld mere ly enco urage mo re ruthle ss exert io n of discrim inat io n in the abse nce of an expe die nt phy sic al co nst raint t o the furnit ure . 7.3.2 The difference between learning spaces and social spaces: A perspective on architecture T he prece ding sect io n specific ally relat e s to the play gro und and thro ugho ut the thesis the relat io nship childre n have with outdoo r furnit ure and archit e ct ure has been fo und to be very diffe re nt from their relat ionship with the classro om . Of 100 childre n in Scho o l A, no t one child indic at e d a fav o urit e classro om chair which they wo uld like to take with them to their new scho o l, even if this chair was effe c tiv e ly ?owne d? by them fo r a year. In fact classro om furnit ure wo uld appe ar to be devo id of any perso nal signific ance to the childre n. The co nt rast highlight s the dem arc at io n betwe e n tradit io nal so cial space s, like the play gro und, and learning space s, lik e the classroo m , and how this dem arc at io n affe ct s children?s relat io nship with the phy sic al schoo l and their well- be ing. This, it was claim e d in Chapt e r 2, is a legacy of Ro bso n?s (187 7 ) Bo ard scho o l design. Thro ugho u t , studie s hav e sho w n that the phy sic al and so cial inte ract io n charac terist ic of the play gro und results in unpro m pt e d creat io n, fo r example , yet this is not replicat ed in the fo rmal learning env iro nme nt s where it is now activ e ly so ught . Furt he rmo re, it is evide nt fro m the rese arc h prese nte d in Chapt e r 5 that childre n?s well- be ing, rathe r than being deriv e d from the place s suppo rt ing play , expre ssio n and stim ulat io n as the ?o bje c t iv e ? well- be ing mo de l pro po se s, clearly begins in the classroo m . Putt ing childre n?s relatio nships with adult s aside , this demo nst rate s the cult ural stee ring of well- be ing describe d late r in Sect io n 7.4 . 2 76 Addit io nally , despit e it s limit e d so cial and phy sic al possibilit ie s, a num be r of childre n in the Favourite Place or Feature st udy ident ifie d the classroo m as their fav o urite place , no ting that they feel safe , whilst also ment io ning the prese nc e of the teache r as a fact o r. There fo re while girls? expre ssio ns of fav o urit e place s or things ov erall were no tably co nce nt rate d on outdo o r feat ure s suppo rt ing social needs, othe r girls ident ify ing the classro om were ofte n citing social refuge from such expre ssio n, as Melanie ?s draw ing in Figure 7 - 3 reinfo rc e s. Figure 7-3 Unhappiness in the playground - School A M o re ov e r, fro m the perspec t iv e of territ o ry , altho ugh classroom s were only occasio nally labe lle d with the teache r?s name , childre n still gene rally refe rre d to the classro om s as Mrs Walke r?s or Mr Arno ld?s fo r exam ple illust rat ing belie fs of owne rship. The gene ral sense that the classroom is abo ve all the teache r?s is reinfo rc e d by the visible tradit io n that , as childre n mov e up thro ugh the schoo l, the teache rs gene rally rem ain in the sam e room s. Co nsiste nt with this is the co nclusio n in Chapt e r 6 that the c lassro om is gene rally no t regarde d as an env iro nm e nt in which so cial territo ry is exert e d or mo re free ly deriv e d social behav io ur expre sse d. Inste ad, childre n in classroom s were obse rv e d to become mo re fo cuse d on perso nal territorie s like desk space, co at ho oks and draw e rs; the lim ite d analysis of the co at hoo k in Chapte r 6 find s that perso nal territ o ry may appe al to girls with a lo w sense of belo nging com pared with so cial territo ry, like the croco dile step, appe aling to girls of high belo nging. 2 77 While the w ell- be ing mo del pro ffe rs that gene rally childre n?s learning can bene fit from refle c t ing their so cial nature , as p ut fo rw ard in Chapt e r 2, allo w ing territo rial behav io ur bey o nd perso nal territo rie s appe ars to hav e been resist e d in fo rm al learning env iro nm e n t s. These two face ts of space were rev e ale d to be co nt radic to ry in the curre nt prim ary schoo l co nt ex t and repre se nt a tensio n betwe e n less co nt aining learning env iro nm e nts and inclusio n. As discussed prev io usly , bo th Max - Ne e f et al. (198 9) and Maslo w (194 3 ) claim e d that som e hum an needs are more fundam e nt al than othe rs and the rese arc h repo rte d in this thesis has sho w n that some childre n will rev e rt to basic s relat ing to safe ty and refuge in prefe re nce to free r so cial inte rac t io n. Overall, this illust rat es the diffe re nc e in the manife st at io n of well- be ing fo r diffe re nt childre n; manife st at io n which the belo nging studie s highlight e d is also base d on react ive respo nse s, mo st no tably in Schoo l S, base d on evide nt so cial gro upings like age and gende r. As this thesis p ro gre sse d to seek mo re subco nsc io us evide nc e from childre n, arc hit e c t ure?s im po rt ant ro le of creat ing space s fo r hum an inte ract ion in schoo ls emerge d. Indee d, late r findings relat e d to inclusio n sugge st the co nt ribut io n of architec t ure to repre se nt a mo re sublim inal and pro t e ct ive design discipline, in line with the co nt e nt ions of Rasm usse n (196 4) and Pev sne r (19 91 ) no te d at vario us po int s in the thesis. Perhaps, there fo re, inst ead of adv is ing that archit ec t ure has faile d ov er many years to challe nge the form of schoo ls, it can be argue d that the archit e ct ure of the Victo rian Bo ard Scho o ls matche d the scho o l cult ure and needs of the com m unity over and abo ve the indiv idual child so clo se ly th at it has defie d change . Teache rs have rev e rt e d to this form ever since which feasi bly indic at es the stre ngt h of archite c t ure and no t its short co m ings ; Sect io n 7.4 dev e lo ps this furt he r by discussing the classroo m as the lo cus of childre n?s well- be ing. Ref le ct ing on this rev e rsio n by teache rs , a cert ain fo lklo re or accum ulat e d wisdom was also evide nt in scho o ls in which, fo r exam ple , teache rs unde rsto o d the disrupt iv e effec t of to o much of the co lo ur red, or of windy day s, on childre n?s behav iour , as Chapt e r 5 discusse d. On this basis, the re tur n to tradit io nal fo rm s in schoo l can be treat ed as evide nc e of teache rs? unde rst anding of inclusio n and of the im po rtanc e of safet y and security as predic ato rs of learning. The nam ing of the frie ndship bench in Scho o l A to mediate territo rial behav io ur is perhaps ano t he r exam ple of intuit iv e teache rs? mainte nanc e of co he sio n in a school comm unit y . Mo re ov e r and mo st notably at Schoo l A, girls show an incre ase d ident ific at io n with inanim ate funct io nal feat ure s as their s choo l belo nging decline s, including the chim ney at Scho o l A fo r exam ple . Once again this most ly indic at e s a relat ive shift away fro m the mo re so cial aspe c t s of 2 78 schoo l like the croco dile step and co nt inue s to em phasise the sublim inal ro le of archit e c t ure . S o cial ano nym ity also appears to be a mo tiv at io n fo r bo y s? relat iv e ly mo re po sit ive ident ific at io n with the schoo l hall, a very tradit io nal feat ure of school. These space s are gene rally represe nte d by a high degree of adult co nt ro l and there fo re co nt rast wi th open plan space s inte nde d to pro mo te inve st igat iv e , child - le d activ it y , discusse d in Chapt e r 2. Beyo nd the ro le of archite ct ure and furnit ure childre n also indic ate d how they relat e to obje ct s which suppo rt learning such as boo ks and the com pute r key bo a rd but equally which also appe ar to pro v ide so me fo rm of refuge . Parado x ic ally childre n co uld be seen to use boo ks and techno lo gy as an escape from learning altho ugh techno lo gy , such as the com put e r, was also ident ifie d with stro ngly by tho se indic at ing hi gh acade m ic self- co ncept s, as Chapte r 6 rev e ale d. All of these exam ple s co nfirm that childre n?s social expe rie nce s at schoo l ha v e a great bearing on how they use the phy sic al schoo l and its relat io nship with their own learning, in which some treat learning and its env iro nm e nt as a sanct uary . As an adjunc t to this discussio n I reco gnise d in Chapt er 2 tha t curre nt ende avo urs to blur th e dist inc t io n betwe e n learning and so cial space s in schoo ls cert ainly ackno w le dge the adv ant age s of mo re so cial, info rm al learning. Ho wev e r, the subse quent studie s sho w that this may well be to the detrim e nt of othe r childre n?s sense s of well- be ing if it result s in discrim inato ry so cial learning behav io ur. The seco nd obse rv at io n made in Chapt e r 2 furt he r note d the tende ncy to apply info rm al learning to children?s so cial spaces whilst leaving the classroo m intac t . By ident ify ing the lo cus of childre n?s well- be ing to be the classro om , the belo nging studie s highlight this as an uninfo rm e d appro ac h and a misdirec t e d opport unit y which inv it e s crit ic ism of appro priat io n. 7.3.3 Concerns of community Alt ho ugh I have argue d thro ugh the well - be ing mo de l that design sho u ld avo id try ing to dire c t ly influe nc e lo nge r term well - be ing outcom e s, Chapt e r 6 indic at e s that the use of sym bo lism to pro mo te ident ity and comm unit y can be effe ct ive . Childre n?s respo nse s at bo th scho o ls to sym bo ls like schoo l lo go s and badge s were on th e who le po sit iv e and the Scho o l S Hands and the Scho o l A frie ndship bench offe re d unex pe ct e d exam ple s of how such sym bo lism can galv anise belo nging rathe r than mere ly refle c t it, as the mo de l originally pro je ct e d. Girls in part ic ular are most fav o urable to the co mm unic at io n of ident it y and co mm unit y which Chapt e r 6 attribute s to the expo s ure of the lo gic of the well- be ing mo de l to the peculiar results of Tajfe l & Turne r (19 79 ) . Here the irrat io nalit y of an indiv idual?s po si t ive ident ificat io n with the gro up they feel they belo ng to was reve ale d and can be seen as a height e ne d respo nse to 2 79 rele v ant sym bo lic feat ure s of scho o l. The discrim inat ing so cial behav io ur indic ate d in this thesis also expo se s a natural alle gianc e to in -groups affect ing ho w childre n perce ive their phy sic al schoo l env iro nm e nt ; as Sally at Scho o l S repo rt s, ?because of the paint we play gam e s that othe r schoo ls can?t .? In com pariso n to the School S Hands, fo r exam ple , the frie ndship bench was a more subt le attem pt to engine e r inclusio n and so cial respo nsibility, and sugge st e d that such design inte nt io ns are mo re depe nde nt on a fo undat io n fo r well - be ing alre ady exist ing at the schoo l. In othe r wo rds, in this case, there are no sho rt cuts to well - be ing and the sym bo lic nature of the frie ndship bench at Schoo l A, it has been reve ale d , may exace rbate feelings of exclusio n rathe r than assuage them . In bo th case s bo y s are less respo nsiv e to sym bo lism in the schoo l env iro nm e nt and it was only mo re disaffe c te d boy s w ho respo nde d to represe nt at io ns of com m unal achie veme nt like wall display s ; relev ant ly these were no te d as free from message s of com pet it io n and winning. 7.3.4 Review In summ ary , studie s in bo th schoo ls po int e d towards a relat io nship with the physic al scho o l whi ch is gene rally negot iat e d thro ugh the so cial co nt e xt of the child. In part ic ular this has been sho w n to affe c t childre n?s relat io nships with their learning. Overall, the mo st no table finding is the relat io nship girls hav e with the so cial schoo l which on the one hand can be seen to po sit iv e ly galv anise the schoo l com m unity whilst on the othe r indic at es exert io n of territo rial behav io ur and so cial discrim inatio n. If design is to target the locus of well- be ing, the classroom , by refle c t ing childre n?s so cial learning mo re clo se ly , this must be co nside re d in the co nt ex t of inclusio n and of othe r childre n who take refuge fro m this. Archite c t ure ?s pro t e ct ive ro le in schoo ls is a signific ant co nside rat io n in this res pec t . 2 80 7.4 Cultural influences on children?s use of the physical school Alt ho ugh I no te d in Chapter 1 that , by nature , the lite rat ure on perso nalise d learning large ly prio rit ise s co nce rns of deve lo ping the indiv idual in Educat io n, I subse que nt ly reco gnise d that the Go ve rnme nt ?s five outcomes and Gilbe rt?s (200 6) refere nc e s to part ic ipat io n betray the wide r obligat io ns of schoo ls to dev e lo p the child in the co ntex t of citize nship. Co nside ring the child inde pe nde nt ly of the so ciety in which they are grow ing up is fundam e n t ally flawe d and Ro usse au (200 4) , tho ugh influe nt ial, has pro pose d a lim ite d, rom ant ic view of childhoo d. As Arthur (20 03 , p.6 9 ) dete rm ine d, ?we are no t as self- det e rm ining or as auto nom o us as we wo uld like to belie ve .? The well - be ing mo de l repre se nt s this realit y; as well - be ing is expresse d at a comm unit y or a natio nal lev e l, describe d in Chapt e r 1, the child is ev ide nt ly subje c t to establishe d wisdom , cult ural no rm s and also po pular views on what co nst it ut e s citize nship. In othe r wo rds childre n, and their well- be ing, are being dire c t e d to wards what is co nce iv e d to be a useful co nt ribut io n to so ciet y and the eco nom y . Thus I have describe d in the first chapt e rs of this thesis ho w a child - c e nt re d schoo l , in pract ic e , only engage s with the individual child once bro ade r cult ural expec t at io ns and po lic y hav e define d what is goo d fo r that child. View e d po sit iv e ly this respe c t s that a child?s well - be ing will be great ly influe nc e d by thei r ability to operate succe ssfully in socie t y . Mo re negat iv e ly , Educat io n can be seen to be manipulat e d by po lic y depe nde nt on changing po lit ic al and eco nom ic mov eme nt s in which mo re ephem e ral inte re st s dire c t the curric ulum . In part ic ular I obse rv e d Craft ? s (200 5 ) co nt e nt io n that the pursuit of creat iv it y may be one such exam ple , highlight ing ho w po lic y , influe nc e d by the eco nom y, dire ct s schoo ls and their curric ulum to co nse que nt ly dete rm ine the po ssibilit ie s of a child?s well- be ing. Crit ic isms lev e lle d at Educat io n, like tho se of Greany (200 5 ), co ndem ning the treatm e nt of childre n as a homo ge no us gro up and the suppo rt ing phy sic al sett ing, hav e energise d the pursuit of perso nalise d learning thro ugh design . Ho we ve r , parado x i c ally , perso nalise d learning and creat iv ity still dete rm ine a narro w view of well- be ing in which it is expe die nt to co nside r childre n as indiv iduals but in realit y they rem ain a hom o ge no us gro up at the will of the eco nom y . No ne t he le ss, despit e the eco nomy and the expe c t at ion that scho o ls will incre asingly take on the tradit io nal fam ily ?s so cialising ro le , Chapt e r 2 co nclude d that the pressing issue s schoo ls face relat ing to childre n?s well- be ing do no t sit within a philo so phic al debat e . The true narro w ing o f well- be ing, obse rv e d in the teache rs? respo nse s to the open air and open plan scho o ls discusse d in Chapt e r 2, predo m inant ly relat e s to the daily pract ic alit ie s of organising large num be rs of 2 81 childre n. Beyo nd co nt ro l, the co nce nt rat io n on organisat io n is perce iv e d as sav ing a great deal of tim e and Dean (200 8 ) co nte nds that it is in everyo ne ?s inte re st to minim ise such tim e . Nev e rt he le ss, in this way scho o ls arguably becom e co nce nt rate d on the organisat io n of learning as o ppose d to learning itse lf which the belo nging studie s have linke d mo re to definit io ns of acce pt able behav io ur than to achie ve me nt . The rese arc h unde rtak e n in this thesis rev e als that the phy sic al env iro nm e nt has been com plic it in this cult ure , eithe r by design or by use. Obse rv at io n in the study scho o ls indic at e s clear dem arc at io n of space in which expe ct e d activ it ie s are presc ribe d. I hav e illust rate d that the clo se d archit e c t ure of the classroom which esse nt ially co nt ains childre n is com po unde d by furnit u re which then rest rict s mov em e nt ev en furt he r. More ov e r, objec t s like teddy bears and sticke rs in Scho o l A give value to the behav io urs the sett ing presc ribe s and the co mm unic ativ e env iro nme nt , which was mo st evide nt ly used in Schoo l S, reinfo rc e s this fu rt he r. This is illust rate d in Figure 7 - 4 . Figure 7-4 A sophisticated physical environment in support of school organisation. Photograph. Source: Author Re lev ant ly , unprom pt e d, childre n in Scho o l A were mo st like ly to refe r po sit iv e ly to elem e nt s of the phy sic al scho o l which relat e to reward; in this way Chapt e r 3 rev e ale d how obje c t s can becom e cult urally charge d and childre n?s well- be ing can be stee re d away fro m so cial co nce rns, fo r exam ple . Typic ally these are objec t s which are favo urably asso c iat e d with childho o d, like teddy bears, and which are appro p riat e d fo r deve lo ping, or co ndit io ning, the child. In addit io n, obje c ts which are seen to be of spo rt ing signific anc e like tro phie s and cups are also used in this way , part ic ularly with olde r childre n. Chapt e r 3 quest io ne d the validity of such an appro ac h in respe c t to its effec t on childre n?s pleasure in learning fo r its own sake . By com pariso n, unpro m pt e d, Schoo l S childre n talke d abo ut social space s. Hist o ric al rev e rsio ns to a classroo m archite c t ure discusse d in Chapt e r 2 dem o nstrat e ho w use has co nt inua lly resiste d change. Equally , I hav e describe d the effo rt s of po st - W ar furnit ure designe rs 2 82 to pro v ide env iro nm e nts which can be mov e d aro und by childre n as yielding to a cult ure which prefe rs the env iro nm e nt to be stat ic . Bearing in mind the defining, behav io urally presc ript ive design of the schoo l chair discusse d in respo nse to the belo nging studie s , it is reve aling that , despit e a seem ingly majo r cult ural shift away from the fixe d benche s of the Bo ard schoo ls, the result ant sett ing fo r learning is po te nt ially mo re rest rict iv e . In fact I hav e ident ified , perhaps pro vo c at iv e ly , the only true bene fic iarie s to be the scho o l cleane rs; chairs were obse rv e d to be stack e d at night and returne d to exact ly the sam e lo cat io ns each mo rning. Mo re ov e r, Chapt e r 2 expo se d curre nt dev e lo pme nt s in seco ndary schoo l chair design to be mo re , no t less, presc ript ive and phy sic ally co nst raining. The po ssibilit ie s of the env iro nme nt can also be seen to be denie d by the overlay ing of rule s. The classroom and its layo ut naturally enge nder ro ut ine and unde rst oo d and acce pt able patte rns of activ ity which mean that these rules can be clearly define d base d on the phy sic al sett ing, such as no rocking on the chairs or running in the co rrido rs . Ho we v er, not only are these env iro nm e nt s stat ic , they are, as obse rv ed in the lite rat ure and the study scho o ls, typic ally one - dim e nsio nal, lending them se lve s to an organisat io n in which areas are ofte n arbitrarily presc ribe d fo r creat iv ity or writ ing, fo r exam p le . I offe r that such pract ic e do es no t re fle c t an unde rst anding of childre n?s learning ; rathe r it is com part m e nt alising of childre n and risks , as the belo nging studie s fo und , negat iv e asso c iat io ns arising betw ee n the child and the activ ity . This, Chapt e r 5 sugge st s, has a kno ck - o n effe c t to self- c o nc e pt . In pract ic e , there fo re , the thesis has ident ifie d curre nt schoo l furnit ure as litt le mo re than an exte nsio n of the archite c t ure and its use define d by the sam e rule s and ro ut ine . The schoo l?s influe nc e over archite c t ure has been co nte ste d to be re lat ive ly lim ite d and altho ugh theo re t ic ally furnit ure prese nts a much mo re flex ible reso urc e , its co nt ribut io n is pure ly fo und in suppo rt ing the mov em e nt of indiv iduals betwe e n fixe d, kno w n areas which are ofte n then labe lle d to define activ ity . As part of the discussio n in Chapt er 2 I furt her describe d the fundame ntal cult ural assum pt io n that each child sho uld hav e their own chair and desk place despit e teache r?s own co nsc io us and co nt rast ing obse rv at io ns of use . This highlight s an unchalle nge d acce pt ance of the env iro nm e nt and a lack of unaw are ne ss of its po ssibilit ie s. What I hav e inferre d from this, suppo rt e d by the behav io ural fo cus of the findings of the belo nging studie s, is that in a prim ary schoo l sett ing behav io ur is large ly define d phy sic ally and suppo rt e d by rule s which are ofte n presc ribe d by the env iro nm e nt and uphe ld by the teache r. While primary schoo ls may there fo re lim it the social nature of girls, in bo th study schoo ls the teache rs? perce pt io ns of childre n who behave poo rly stro ngly im ply that phy sic al co nce rns of the 2 83 env iro nm e nt mo st ly affe ct bo y s and their feelings of well- be ing. Indic at ive of possible subse que nt disaffe c t io n with schoo l is the finding that boy s? gene rally relat e less well to the co mm unic at io n of ru le s, exace rbate d by an evide nt depe nde nce on how they are perce iv e d by the teache r. I no te d bo y s? lowe r succe ss rate s in Educat io n, discusse d in Chapt e r 5, as relat e d in some way to such early disaffe c t io n. This can be seen in boy s? inte rac t io n with the ph y sic al schoo l. The belo nging studie s have sho w n that boy s typic ally find expre ssio n and perhaps motivat io n fo r their lo w belo nging in aspe c t s of the mate rial scho o l which hav e rules applie d to them . Affo rde d by the detail of the Identity Card study , such b o y s co uld also be seen to use appro priate part s of the scho o l as an outle t fo r their rebe llio us urge s. While this was evide nt in both scho o ls, boy s? react io ns to rules can be seen explic it ly in the behav io ur enco urage d by the gate rele ase at Scho o l A which many childre n asso c iat e d with being trappe d or no t trust e d. Furt he rmo re , in Chapt e r 6, the Schoo l S bo ys? respo nse s to ?a wall that yo u can?t clim b? and the hall raft e rs from which ro pe s no lo nge r hang are indicat iv e of frust rate d oppo rt unit ie s fo r phy sic al expre ssio n. This can also be witne sse d in schoo l co rrido rs which inv ite the child to run but the rule s applie d to the space make it unacc e pt able to do so . It is co nce iv able there fo re that acce pt able behav io ur is ofte n define d on the basis of phy sic alit y which the design may enco urage yet the schoo l disallo w s, as the latt e r chapt e rs of this thesis expo se . In gene ral I obse rv e that it is easie r to enfo rc e rule s base d upo n phy sicalit y rathe r than the subt le t ie s of territo rial play . No ne t he le ss I wo uld be l oat h e to rest ric t this co nte nt io n to boy s alo ne , part ic ularly hav ing obse rv e d the inte nse ly social and phy sic al nature which gene rally charac te rise d the Schoo l S Year 5 class, irre spe c t iv e of gende r. I hav e note d in Chapter 5 that Stee r (2009 ) po int s out changing patt e rns of gende r behav iour which dete rm ine that this is incre asingly rele v ant to all childre n. Furt he rmo re the physic ally rest rict ive scho o l env iro nm e nt affe ct s everyo ne on the basis that co - e duc at io nal schoo l en v iro nm e nt s and their pract ice do not gene rally diffe re nt iate by gende r. 7.4.1 Behaviour and achievement T he findings, relev ant to both Educat io n and Design, hav e much wide r ram ific at ions, as Chapt e r 5 discusse d. Behav io ur, while it might no t dete rm ine the curri c ulum, will large ly dete rm ine the succe ss of it. Fo r exam ple , creat iv it y may be an im po rt ant eleme nt of the curric ulum yet, if behav io ur is define d to preclude aspe ct s of phy sic al and so cial expre ssio n, then the prom ot io n of creat iv it y is lim it e d. Refe rrin g back to the well - be ing mo de l this relate s to try ing to achiev e an 2 84 outco me in the future witho ut fo cusing on the child?s day - t o - day needs and can result in a pro ce sse d, supe rfic ial appro ac h to creat iv ity rathe r than creat iv ity itse lf. These are fundam e nt a l implic at io ns of the belo nging studie s at Schoo l A and Scho o l S in which, com bine d with the discussio n in Chapt e r 2, lead to the co nclusio n that, for scho o l organisat io n to wo rk, acce pt able behav io ur and what is co nside re d to be achiev em e nt must be aligne d. Child - le d, inv e st igat iv e learning, which also unde rpins curre nt no tio ns of perso nalise d learning, was em phat ic ally overridde n by teache rs during the open plan era because , to a large exte nt , what was co nside re d achiev em ent was at odds with how behav io ur was co nce iv e d. Achie v eme nt intrude d on behav io ur in a way that teaching the 3Rs to childre n in rows on bo lted do wn benche s did no t. The teaching of the 3 Rs was a lim ite d senso ry expe rie nce for childre n and the Bo ard schoo ls were phy sic ally organise d to s uppo rt or, perhaps, co ndit io n childre n to watch and liste n, as I discusse d in Chapt e r 2. Also in Chapte r 2 I repo rted ho w Plo w de n (19 67 ) fo rm ally reco gnise d the wo rk of Piaget (197 5) a nd othe rs to maint ain that a child?s learning sho uld be mult i- se nso ry in nature , yet the reve rsio n to the mo re stat ic classroom fo rm at is evide nc e of teache rs redre ssing the behav io ur - ac hiev eme nt balanc e . While self- dire c te d learning invo lve s mo vem e nt and the range of sense s it co nt inues to be rest rict e d by scho o l cult ure and organisat io n. As a result I not e that Design and Educat io n hav e co nt inually been frust rat e d in their atte m pt s to pursue child - c e nt re d schools fo r over a cent ury and the channe lling of design effo rt s towards perso nalise d learning has been expo se d, not as a new so lut io n, but inste ad as a refo rm att e d addit io n to prot rac te d and unfulfille d am bit io ns fo r scho o ls. While the basic pro te c t ive design qualit ie s of the classro om may abso lv e archit ec t ure , the thesis rev e als that the unchalle nge d, stat ic and ubiquito us chair and desk repre se nt a fundam e nt al ov ersight in scho o l de sign which perpe t uat es cult ure and curric ulum . 7.4.2 Dependence on the teacher: Belonging and inclusion T he studie s, in acco rdan ce with the div e rsit y of the well - be ing mo de l, hav e demonst rat e d that it is pro ble mat ic al to try to evaluat e inclusio n pure ly in term s of so cial po pularit y and belo nging do es no t unifo rm ly incre ase the mo re po pular the child is; in fact exce pt io nally high belo nging fo und fo r som e childre n in the oute r so cial circle s of the so cial netwo rk analy sis indic ate that cert ain childre n appe ar to be immune to their so cial standing. While the yo unge st childre n illust rat e a cleare r link betw ee n social po sit io n and belo nging, by the tim e childre n reach the latt e r years of prim ary schoo l, there are othe r facto rs invo lve d. 2 85 Notably I have show n in Chapt e r 5 that belo nging is much mo re clo se ly relate d to what the teache r think s of a child, rev e aling a decisive co nne ct io n bet w ee n the teache r?s perce pt io n of a child and that child?s well - be ing. In addit io n the percept io ns of the teache r are linke d to childre n?s so cial relat io nships with their peers; as Tim ot hy said, he made ? new frie nds because he did well in th(e ) lesso ns ?; in this case the mo tiv at io n, reco gnit io n and im pac t of achiev em e nt are all so cial, reinfo rc ing the need to view achiev em e nt in this wider co nte x t . Exclusio n may be a natural pheno me no n of childre n?s so cial deve lo pm e nt reflec te d in the incre asingly discrim inato ry nature of the class so cial circle s expo se d by social netw o rk analy sis in Chapt e r 5. No net he le ss, in the sam e chapt e r I have sho w n the schoo l cult ure to pro v ide much of the basis upo n which discrim inat io n occurs; the cult ure define s what is goo d and what is bad and childre n who do no t fit into these parame t ers of acce pt abilit y , the belo nging studie s show , expe rie nce vary ing degre e s of exclusio n. As an exam ple the so cial im po rt ance of no t being in the lo west ability gro up repre se nt s how public judgme nt s made in the classro om affe c t the child?s inte rac t io n with othe r childre n. Co nse que nt ly , ov erall I hav e fo und that scho o l well- be ing is predom inant ly deriv e d in the classro om and acte d out in the play gro und, whereby values used in schoo ls to direc t childre n?s dev e lo pme nt can then be applie d by the childre n fo r discrim inato ry so cial behav io ur. The judgm e nt s, and there fore the perce pt io ns, of the teache r becom e cent ral. Addit io nally , o bse rv at io ns made in Chapt e r 5 ident ify that the effec t of ability gro uping on well - be ing relat e s dire c t ly to the phy sic al layo ut of classroo ms. On the who le children were resilie nt to perce pt io ns of their abilit y , including girls fo r whom it appe ars to be a so cial adv ant age to perce ive onese lf as average . Howev e r, the so cial fo rm alisat io n of ability in abilit y gro ups was sho w n as injurio us to well - be ing, typic ally reinfo rc e d each day by the classroom lay o ut and signage . While Maxw e ll (200 0 ) and Budde n (200 7 ) fo cus on co nce nt rat io n and comm unic at io n with respe c t to seat ing layo ut s, the belo nging studie s hav e show n that there are mo re fundam e nt al issue s; how can abilit y gro uping and the suppo rt ing phy sic al env ironm e nt be com pat ible with inclusio n in schoo ls? Her e is a furt he r tensio n with the schoo l?s co nt radic to ry obje c t iv e to dev e lo p the indiv idual to the fulle st po tent ial. Mo re gene rally , if scho o ls seek transfo rm at io n the jo urne y of the thesis incre asingly reco gnise d that influe nc ing the co nt e nt of the child - t e ac he r relat io nship, in the co nt e xt of organisat io n dem ande d by mass Educat io n, is the esse nce of cult ural change in scho o ls. This cent ral relat io nship has been sho wn to be dev alue d by co nce rns of behav io ur in which the learning env iro nm e nt has been im pli c at e d as reinfo rc ing and even dete rm ining. Fundam ent ally , the lev e l of presc ript io n of mo vem ent in the env iro nme nt preclude s phy sic al and so cial activ it y and the 2 86 engage me nt of the sense s, no te d in the well - be ing mode l as fundame nt s. In line with Mo rt imo re et al. (199 4) , Chapte r 5 propo s e d that this shape s teache rs? inte rac t io n with childre n. In less presc ript ive env iro nm e nt s describe d in Chapt er 5, I hav e prov ide d evide nc e of teache rs who feel a sense of libe rat io n from the cult ure which is em be dde d in the phy sic al sett ing and who were explic it abo ut the po sit iv e effec t it had on ?poo rly ? behav e d childre n. The learning island expe rim e nt which teste d childre n?s and teache rs? respo nse s to less presc ript iv e furnit ure suppo r t e d the predict io n; teache rs no te d that children perce iv e d to hav e behav io ural diffic ult ie s wo rke d very well on the island, obse rv ing also that childre n prefe rre d to be at a lo we r lev e l; an unex pe c t e d outcom e . Phrase s like ? i t has been lov e ly watching the childre n ?s attit ude s change ,? are sugge st iv e of, mo re signific ant ly , a change in the teache r?s perce pt io n of certain childre n and mo reo v er of their asso c iate d relie f. Such findings fo rm the basis of the argum e nt that a child - t e ac he r cent re d scho o l is a mo r e meaningful and tangible fo cus than the irre co nc ilable pursui t of child - c e nt re d ideals. Furt he r, t here is an overlap betwe e n the im plic at io ns of these findings and, part ic ularly , the kinae st het ic aspec t s of learning sty le s wo rk , such as that of Dunn & Dun n (199 3) and Gardne r (199 3) note d in Chapte r 5. Ho wev e r, rathe r than catego rising childre n in what Miliband (200 7 ) describe s as a reduc t ive appro ac h, this thesis reco gnise s that to vary ing degree s childre n will gene rally need to expre ss their phy sic ality and so cial nature as the well - be ing mode l im plie s. By co nce ntrat ing on natural yet denie d needs rathe r than becom in g em bro ile d in transie n t co nce pt io ns of learning and curric ulum , I hav e sugge st e d a designe r can bett er suppo rt lo ngev ity of design. It also avo ids the furt he r presc ript io n of learning env iro nm e nt s fo und in the pro po sals of Dunn & Dunn (19 93 ) which arguabl y becom e inhe rite d again by organisat io nally - mo t iv at e d pract ic e . Furt he rmo re I have po inted out that the desire d synchro nic it y of behav io ur and achie v eme nt in schoo ls can naturally lead to co nfusio n betwe e n the two and, no t ing that ultim ate ly behav io ur t ake s prece de nc e , sugge st this must affec t childre n?s acade m ic ende avo urs. Fo r exam ple the boy s ident ify ing mo st with the Vict o rian display in Scho o l A were tho se perce iv e d to behav e the best rathe r than tho se who were co nside re d mo st able . Equally , boy s? p o sit iv e ident ific at io n with the bo o ks in the library was also signific ant ly link e d to good behav io ur and no t abilit y. Mo re ov er, when one co nside rs the depe nde nc e childre n hav e dem o nst rate d on the perce ptio ns of the teache r, the im plic at io n of a phy sic ally presc ript iv e learning env iro nm e nt shaping these perce pt io ns is the po te nt ial emerge nce of disaffe ct io n thro ugh the child?s inte rnalise d 2 87 perce pt io ns of abilit y . I rem ark e d that the num be r brick s, fo r exam ple , which made Alex ?bad?, risk such disaffe c t io n wi th nume rac y . Ho wev e r, this thesis do es no t sim ply maint ain that childre n need to be free r in the way they are allo we d to learn. The rese arc h in this thesis has clearly indic at e d that well- be ing is mo re com plex than that and tradit io nal archit e c t ural feat ures like the scho o l hall and the classro om , in which stro ng adult co nt ro l exists, appe ar to be favo ure d by least po pular childre n or gene rally tho se exhibit ing a low sense of belo nging to scho o l. Once again, in reve rt ing to tradit io nal form s, it can be clai m e d that Educat io n intrinsic ally unde rstands inclusio n and has place d a great e r value on the co mm unity over and abo v e the needs and deve lopm e nt of indiv iduals. 7.4.3 Review T he scho o l cult ure has a dete rm ining effe ct on children?s well- be ing which is prim arily d erive d in the classroo m and, notably, thro ugh the child - t e ac he r relat io nship. Irre spe c t iv e of design outdoo rs or in othe r so cial space s, the classroom must be the fo cus of the schoo l?s and of D esign?s effo rts to bro ade n the educat io n offe re d to childre n an d incre ase the po ssibilit ies of their well- be ing. In part ic ular, this is a quest io n of so cial and phy sic al expre ssio n and ultim at e ly of behav io ur. Fo r a mainst re am scho o l to operat e the design must be regarde d as com plem e nt ary to the organisat io n of the sc ho o l, balanc ing its ofte n co ntradic to ry respo nsibilit ie s to indiv idual childre n and to the schoo l co mm unity as a who le . Furt he rmo re , childre n hav e indic ate d the im po rt anc e of their relat io nship with their teache r, irre spec t iv e of schoo l or age, and I have adv is e d that the obje ct ive sho uld be to rev alue this relat io nship in what I term child - t e ac he r cent re d design. Esse nt ially this is to be fo und in a balanc e betw ee n no n - presc ript ive and safe , pro t ec t e d sett ings fo r prim ary schoo l childre n. Addit io nally cle ane rs? observ e d refusals to clean furnit ure which is not ?schoo l furnit ure ?, there fo re affe c t ing children?s willingne ss to use it, highlight the fixe d cult ure which many teache rs, pare nt s, cleane rs and care t ak e rs rev e al towards learning space s; a furthe r p art of the cult ural challe nge face d by Educat io n and Design . 2 88 7.5 Conclusion: Priorities of primary school design T his thesis has dev e lo p e d an unde rst anding of the curre nt challe nges facing Educat io n info rme d by the daily expe rie nce s of childre n. The inte nt io n has been to use this rese arc h to co nt ribut e to the proce ss of schoo l design by tack ling the am biguit y obse rv e d to day at the briefing stage . This has been achie ve d in two steps : 1. D e fining the realist ic expe ct at io n and fo cus of Design ; 2. E x plo ring the subje ct iv e expe rie nc e of childre n at scho o l to ident ify specific design oppo rt unit ie s fo r suppo rt ing po sit iv e and realist ic change in P rim ary Educat io n . The primary schoo l classroo m has been show n to be the decisiv e lo cat io n in determ ining a child?s well- be ing at schoo l. Classro om s hav e been fo und to lim it well- be ing bo th phy sically and so cially , and dete rm ine many aspe ct s of what the childre n do and ho w they feel bo th in and outside the fo rmal learning env iro nment . Abo ve all classro om s are the lo cat io n of the piv ot al relat io nship betw ee n child and teache r. In Chapt e r 1 I refe rre d to Rudd (200 8 a) who dete rm ine d that transfo rm at io n, and in part ic ular perso nalise d learning, is nece ssarily unde fine d and must evo lv e . Com bining this with my own obse rv at io ns of an educat io nal co nt ex t which is no t suit e d to rapid change , I no te d that cult ural change require s bo th a start ing po int and acce ss to challe nge the exist ing cult ure. In t his regard I pro po se that the classro om is the start ing po int and acce ss is thro ugh the child - t e ac he r relat io nship. Witho ut underm ining the im po rt anc e of outdoo r space s, fo r exam ple , I maint ain that this is no t where the real enric hm e nt of childre n?s educa t io n begins . This co nclusio n there fo re offe rs design priorities for change which specific ally focus on rev aluing the child - t e ac he r relat io nship in the classroo m sett ing. It is reco gnise d that change sho uld be viewe d as increm e nt al and no t transfo rm at io nal, and this sect io n culm inat es in the prese nt at io n of recomm e ndat io ns fo r the design brie f. 7.5.1 The relationship between architecture and furniture Alt ho ugh in iso lat io n D esign may be perfe c t ly ab le to pro duc e env iro nme nt s which are challe nging and stim ulat ing, th is thesis has ident ifie d that the co nside rat io n of prim ary state Educat io n as a mass co nce rn , to get he r with its respo nsibilit y fo r dive rse childre n?s needs , will dete rm ine the meaningful applic at io n of design. 2 89 The rele v ance of archite c t ure has been esta blishe d as pro v iding space s in which hum an inte rac t io n can occur and, in a prim ary schoo l co nt e xt , a sim plist ic view of architec t ure cent re s aro und the quest io n of open or clo se d learning env ironm e nt s. Chapt e r 2 describe d ho w t he pro v isio n of entire ly open plan env iro nm e nt s in the 1960 s and 197 0 s repre se nt ed an extre me which no t only misjudge d the organisat io nal require me nt s of scho o ls but, as Chapt e r 6 highlight e d , unde rm ine d the fundam e nt al child - t e ac he r relat io nship. Mo re ov e r, the effe c t of free r so cial use of areas and feat ure s in mo re open learning env iro nm e nts has been sho w n by this rese arc h to challe nge othe r inclusiv e mo tiv at io ns fo r the schoo l comm unit y and the needs of cert ain childre n who seek so cially ano ny mo us space s or adult pro t ec t io n. Thus de sign must balanc e the mult iple dem ands the scho o l exert s on space and I no te that the findings of this thesis predo m inant ly direc t archit e ct ure to wards the basic s of design, as describe d in Appe ndix 3, and in part icular to safe ty and security . This reflec t s the signific an ce of archit e c t ure ?s pro t ec t ive role as a subco nsc io us facto r in childre n?s well- be ing, emerging from the analy sis of the Identity Card respo nse s. I there fo re recom me nd that some fo rm of enclo sure of the learning env iro nm e nt akin to , altho u gh no t nece ssarily ident ic al to , the class ro om is im po rt ant . This do es not preclud e childre n from vent uring out, of which I have prev io usly com me nt e d Hert zbe rge r (20 08 ) is an advo c ate . Enclo sure is also suppo rt ive of schoo l organisat io n and co unt e rs so me of the acoust ic pro blem s which are still asso c iat e d with open plan env iro nme nts. These were rem ark e d upo n in Chapt e r 2 with part ic ular refe re nc e to the inclusio n of childre n with hearing diffic ult ie s. By co nce nt rat ing on design basic s, the relat ive clos ure of archite c t ure places the onus of a child?s mo re phy sic all y , senso rially and so cially - de riv e d well - be ing on the sc ho o l furnit ure which, curre nt ly , can also be regarde d to be of clo se d design. I n an enclo se d learning sett ing, the view suppo rt e d by the thesis findings which relate s children?s mo re affe ct ive well- be ing to the aspec t s of the phy sic al schoo l they are in co nt ac t is relev ant . Enabling a mo re so cial and phy sic al charact e r to a child?s learning, less presc ript iv e furnit ure design can be seen to hav e the po te nt ial to bro ade n the po ssibilit ie s of a child?s well - be ing. While the im po rt anc e of usable surfac e s co nt inue s, designs which do no t dete rm ine one phy sic al po sit io n, which do no t restric t mov em e nt, or which do not preclude phy sic al co nt ac t with othe r childre n suppo rt the finding s of the thesis. Figure 7 - 5 illust rat e s exam ple s of childre n?s natural cho ic e s in learning env iro nm e nt s in which so cial and phy sic al varie ty is achie ve d. 2 90 Figure 7 -5 Unprom pt e d phy sic al cho ic es in learning situat io ns . Pho to graph. So urce : Autho r No tably the exam ple from Scho o l B in which the sett ing enable d the child and teache r to inte rac t on a basis of equalit y resulte d in ?a bit of a breakt hro ugh? with a gene rally ?disint ere st e d? bo y . Refe rring back to the teache rs? learning island comm ent s abo ut the leve ls at which childre n like to wo rk at, it can be seen that offe ring variet y in the phy sic al dynam ic s betwe e n the child and the teache r, in this case thro ugh furnit ure height s, can be adv ant ageo us. The girl wo rking on the lit pede st al, on the oth e r hand, is an exam ple of presc ript iv e one - dim e nsio nal design yet it illust rat e s childre n?s creat iv ity in using learning env iro nm e nt s which affo rd varie ty . Acco rdingly , it is also no te d that the exam ple of the learning island is perhaps mo re archit e c t ural and fixe d, indic at ing that stat ic learning env iro nm e nt s can still co nt ribut e if they offe r variet y and may actually assist when maxim ising the use of space . Last ly , the im age of the yo unge st childre n wo rk ing on the floo r is perhaps the most natural and lea st presc ript iv e of learning env iro nme nt s and a lesso n against the tendenc y to over - de sign. Furt he rmo re , learning space s designe d on the basis of variet y and cho ice will auto mat ic ally challe nge curre nt unifo rm lay o uts base d on ability grouping, which hav e been sho w n to be so cially expo sing fo r childre n in the lo we st gro ups. This do es howev e r indic at e ho w design which tackle s acce pt e d pract ic e can only be carrie d out in dialo gue with the scho o ls them se lve s and com prom ises will need to be reache d as p art of t he design pro ce ss. As an exte nsio n to this s ignific ant dialo gue , the bo lte d do wn env iro nme nt s of the Vict o rian Bo ard schoo ls may be regarde d as mo re ho ne st designs on the basis that childre n were no t giv e n mixe d message s abo ut their use. The wall yo u canno t clim b is relev ant here . Ensuring design inte grity is a cent ral po int of discussion with the scho o l altho ugh inev it ably there will, as Chapt e r 2 has sho w n, be design inte nt io ns overridde n by use. 2 91 By way of exam ple , the cult ural lay e ring of use can be clearly seen in Figure 7 - 6 in the way childre n were allo w e d to use large ly ident ic al designs in diffe re nt schoo ls. Figure 7-6 The same design intention results in different use in different schools. Photograph. Source: Author As disc usse d earlie r, the enclo sure of the learning env iro nme nt will assist in the avo idance of undue so cial territo ries for m ing and being exerte d in respo nse to the less presc ript iv e and mo re so cial sett ings. There is evide nc e in the findings of the thesis to obse rve that owne rship of space is no t, as the exem plar design brie f (DfES, 200 3 b) sugge s t s, a nece ssarily helpful obje c t iv e . I wo uld tend e r that the sense of belo nging which owne rship pro mo te s in som e childre n and dev alue s in othe rs is at odds with the pursuit of a co he siv e schoo l com m unity . Finally , as two furt he r no tes of caut io n, whilst it is probably natural as a designe r to becom e enthusiast ic abo ut change and one?s own innov at io ns, Sarah at Scho o l S made it very clear when the learning island was intro duc e d into the classroom that she just want s to sit on a no rm al chair. Furt he rmo re t here must also be a tem pt at io n to em brac e the child?s inadv e rte nt use of design to pro v ide base s and play areas; I wo uld caut io n against intruding into this inv isible wo rld and deny ing aspe c ts of a child?s true creat iv it y . 7.5.2 The design brief: Recommendations T his thesis has iso lat e d the signific ant ro le of the design brie f in dete rm ining the em erging nature of to day ?s scho o l design in which design reso urce is dire c t e d away fro m the experie nc e of the child . T o direc t design is , right fully , the ro le of the brie f but in this case , an explorat io n of its inhe re nt am biguit y and misuse of term ino lo gy has enable d this thesis to dete rm ine way s in which 2 92 a schoo l design brie f can be im prov e d. The fo llo w ing 6 recomm e ndat io ns refe r specific ally to aspe c t s of well- be ing and affe c t iv e design cov e re d by this thesis. 1. Se t t ing out r ealist ic expe ctat io ns and obje ct ive s T he design brie f, of which the exem plar brie f in Appe ndix 1 is a leading exam ple , has been sho w n i n this thesi s to be misle ading with regard to the realist ic co nt ribut io n of design and the ro le of design in achie v ing mo re affe c t ive go als . In part ic ular this relat es to elem e nt s of the brie f which dire c t designe rs to the pursuit of lo nge r term obje ct ives like self - e st e em and inclusio n, fo r exam ple ; the well - be ing mo de l expo se s this pursuit to be f law e d . This thesis there fo re recomm e nds that the term ino lo gy used avo id s what might be describe d as unsubst ant iat e d , aspirat ionally - mo t iv at e d language and obje c t iv es. Inst e ad the cho se n language sho uld reflec t a discussi o n of the child?s daily scho o l ex ist e nce and targe t the oppo rt unit y to enric h their so cial, phy sic al and sensory expe rie nc e s whilst achiev ing a balanc e with the im po rt anc e many childre n place on safe ty , pro te c t io n and sanct uary from so cially free r env iro n m e nt s . 2. P re se nt ing the oppo rt unit y fo r meaningful change thro ugh child - t e ac he r cent re d design The brie f must prov ide great e r insight into the P rimary E ducat io n co nt ex t in order to establish the oppo rt unity fo r change in scho o l design and pract ic e . T he open plan vent ure describe d in Chapt e r 2 represe nte d the im po rt ant relat io nship betw e e n d esign and use and t he dom inant effe ct of schoo l cult ure em erge s thro ugho ut the rese arc h . T his thesis has asce rt aine d two piv o t al feat ure s of prim ary schoo l cult ure wh ich hav e been sho w n to co m bine to great ly influe nce childre n?s sense s of well- be ing. First ly it has dete rm in e d that this cult ure is info rm e d mo re by needs of organisat io n than it is by educat io nal philo so phy or pedago gy and seco ndly that it is em bo di e d in the highly influe nt ial c hild - t e ac he r relat io nship ; this relat io nship, the rese arc h has sho w n, is wide ly value d by childre n and teache rs alike . The failure of open plan sugge st s that bo th these feat ure s of P rim ary E ducat io n a re activ e ly prese rve d and repre s e nt ov e rriding fact o rs in the persist e nce of Victo rian fo rm s. The two are linke d and I hav e describe d ho w the fo cus on organisat io n creat e s an educat io nal syst em driv e n by behav io ur which , in turn , suppo rte d by the phy sic al env iro nment , can dev alue the child - t e ac he r relat io nship and hence childre n?s self - c o nc e pts and feelings of well- be ing. 2 93 Whilst it is ackno w le dge d that organisat io n is the realit y of mainst re am scho o ls, it is the ro le of the design brie f to fully describe the signific anc e o f the child - t e ac he r relat io nship and the oppo rt unity fo r Design to assist in rev aluing it thro ugh child - t e ac he r cent re d design. Addit io nally the rese arc h ident ifie s the classroom as the lo cus of a child?s well- be ing and there fo re the crit ic al lo cat io n and start ing po int of posit ive change . 3. E st ablishing the co nt ribut ion of a rchit e c t ure and furniture and sett ing out princ iple s of child - t e ac he r cent re d design The relat io nship betw ee n archit e c t ure and furnit ure is uncle ar in to day?s design brie fs and the design princ iple s vague ; the call fo r flex ibilit y and adapt abilit y , I suggest , speak s most ly of unce rt aint y and negle ct s the reality of schoo ls . The overriding fo cus on archit e c ture is also stro ngly evide nt and misrepre se nt at iv e of this thesis? findings . Thro ugh explo r at io n of the child - t e ac he r relat io nship , th is rese arc h is able to describe an im po rt ant harmo nisat ion betw ee n archit e c t ure and furnit ure which target s two seem ingly co nt radic to ry dem ands on schoo l. Th e rese arc h reco mm e nds an archit e ct ural fo rm w hich has been sho w n , in the case of archit e c t ure , to be info rm ed by childre n?s basic needs of safe t y and securit y , crit ic ally relat e d to clo se ne ss to signific ant adult s. In ov erall term s it is reco mme nde d that the brie f adv o c at e s a balanc e betw e e n safe , pro te c t ive classroom , or ho me base , archite c t ure as the prim e lo cat io n of the child - t e ac he r relat io nship and mo re varie d and, in part ic ular, less presc ript iv e furnit ure within this sett ing , designe d to facilit at e so cial, phy sic al and senso ry learning expe rie nces. The obje ct ive is to rev alue the child - t e ache r relat io nship by rem ov ing unne c e ssary behav io ural message s em be dde d in the mo re tradit io nal classroom env iro nm e nt s. These , as the princ iple s unde rpinning child - t e ac he r cent re d design, it is argue d can facilitat e meaningful change and respe c t the reaso ns why the fo rm of schoo ls has prov e d to be so resilie nt to change . 4. P romo t ing design inte grit y A seco ndary outcom e of the rese arc h is the finding that the inte grity and com plem e nt arit y of design and use is an i m po rtant facto r in childre n?s expre sse d well- be ing. This is exem plifie d by the wall which canno t be clim be d or the co rrido r in which running is no t allo w e d . Th e design brie f sho uld refe r to the avo idanc e of designing feat ure s which eithe r co nsc io usly or un co nsc io usly pro m ise cert ain expre ssio n, ofte n phy sic al, which the schoo l cult ure then denie s. 2 94 5. D ire ct ing a co llabo rat ive design pro ce ss By attem pt ing to enric h the child - t e ac he r relat io nship thro ugh design, its explo rat io n dem ands a co llabo rat ive approac h betw e e n the schoo l and the design e rs . While this need is curre nt ly wide ly acknow le dge d , in pract ic e the archit ec t ?s abilit y to engage meaningfully with a scho o l has been com prom ise d by financ ial and tim e pressures and also , arguably , by a lack of focus . T his thesis canno t dete rm ine budge ts but it does pro v ide a prio ritise d agenda in the design brie f to dire ct the effe c t iv e ne ss of subse que nt co llabo rat io n. Furt he rmo re , the rese arc h describe s the im po rt ant cont ribut io n of childre n and way s to inte rpret and r espe c t childre n?s co ntribut io ns. Meaningful engage m e nt of childre n is fully recomm e nde d. 6. L e arning lesso ns from objec t s In Chapt e r 4, Dean (200 8) refle c te d the view of a lo ng line of educat io nalist s by asse rt ing the im po rt anc e of objec t s and the dev e lo pme nt al benefits of handling. This rese arc h has equally co nfirm e d the im po rt anc e of obje c ts in relat io n to childre n?s well- be ing, suppo rted by the finding that childre n ident ify mo st with things they can to uch. Lo gically this endo rse s a mo re senso ry appro ac h to the mate rial scho o l. T he design and use of objec t s in schoo ls, part ic ularly in relat io n to learning, is a mo re com ple x unde rt ak ing and out of scope of this thesis. Howev e r, it is recomm e nde d that the design of schoo l archit e c t ure and furnit ure w o uld bene fit from apply ing the charact e rist ic s of obje c t s by becom ing mo re inte rac t iv e and tact ile . As an exam ple , no tably as childre n get olde r and balanc ing prev io usly ment io ne d issues of owne rship, child re n may be enco urage d to co nst ruc t and deco nst ruct their learning sett ing. 7.5.3 How is this approach different from the current programme? I hav e highlight e d thro ugho ut this thesis that the co nce nt rat io n on perso nalise d learning is to o narro w a focus fo r D esig n when asse sse d against the bro ade r respo nsibilit ie s of schoo ls. Howev e r, by expo sing the definit io n of childre n?s well - be ing as gene rally occurring in the classroo m, I hav e sim ilarly recomm e nde d that this lo cat io n sho uld be the focus fo r cult ural change assist e d by design. Beyo nd this, ho we ve r, the design philo so phy is diffe re nt . First ly , Chapte r 2 put fo rw ard a rathe r crit ic al case that perso nalise d learning curre nt ly take s a two - pro nge d appro ac h: hand - he ld techno lo gy in the classroo m and the appro priat io n of so cial space s fo r learning. On bo th co unt s the fo rm al learning env iro nme nt gene rally rem ains 2 95 unchalle nge d. With the applic at io n of techno lo gy , I sugge st that the physic al env iro nm e nt has an even greate r ro le i n suppo rt ing childre n?s phy sic al, so cial and sensor y learning. Equally , if the inte nt io n pro ve s to be to deskill the ro le of teache rs in the face of teache r sho rtage s ident ifie d by Go uld (200 8 ) and perce iv ed qualit y is sue s note d by Cam e ro n (in Watt, 2010 ) , the l ocus of childre n?s well- be ing will be com e highly unce rt ain . By maint aining that D esign must suppo rt a rev aluat io n of the child - t e ac he r relat io nship , base d on the fo rm al and anecdo t al evide nce of th is rese arc h , I do no t believ e that this relat io nship sho uld be lost in a digit al wo rld. Seco ndly , I have stre sse d that archit ec t ure sho uld cont inue to suppo rt the basics of design, and furnit ure , which the children are phy sically in to uch with, sho uld be the fo cus of mo r e affe c t iv e design. Curre nt ly , treat ing new scho o ls as exerc ise s in archit e ct ure po te nt ial ly exace rbat e s the visual bias of childre n?s scho o l expe rie nc e . Mo reo ve r, by refo c using the pro ce ss on what happe ns in the building rathe r than the building itse lf, i t is feasible that the recomm e ndat io ns of this thesis will co nt ribut e po sit iv e ly follo w ing any future inv e st me nt cuts, as bo th Left ly (200 9 ) and Sugde n (200 9) warn. The design princ iple s prese nt e d in this chapt e r are suit e d to refurbishm e nt . Furt he r, I re comm e nd that design sho uld not fo llow trends in Educat io n which notic e a bly change as gov e rnm e nt s change , such as perso nalise d learning and the som ew hat fo rm ulaic creat iv ity agenda. Iso lat ing the mo re obje c t iv e eleme nt s of the well - be ing mo de l, childre n?s t ime le ss phy sic al and so cial nature prese nt the great e st oppo rt unit y and is like ly to co nt ribut e to the lo nge v it y of schoo ls. Ho wev e r , as part of the design pro ce ss, there is a requireme nt for a meaningful disco urse on the co m ple me nt arity of behav io ur and evo lv ing co nce pt io ns of achie v eme nt . Finally I recom me nd scho o ls of phy sic al variet y and, arguably , charac te r over schoo ls which are flex ible and adapt able and avo id co nfro nt at io n with scho o l cult ure . As Medd (19 98 ) said, ?to design fo r every t hing is to design fo r no thing (p.2 ) .? 2 96 7.6 Evaluation of the thesis 7.6.1 Contribution of the research T he co nt ribut io n of this rese arc h falls unde r sev e n co nne c t e d headings . These de scribe how inno v at iv e inte rpret at io n of lite rat ure , varie ty in primary rese arc h metho ds , and analy sis hav e offe re d a nece ssary clarit y fo r the ongo ing co llabo rat io n betw ee n Design and Educat io n in the pursuit of childre n?s well- be ing: 1. The dev e lo pm e nt of a time - base d mo de l of well - be ing The mo de l has clarifie d the misleading term ino lo gy used in design brie fs and lite rat ure to dete rm ine a meaningful focus fo r Design in schoo l archit e c t ure and furnit ure . Apart from som e po ssibilit ie s surro unding design fo r so cial ident it y, this fo cus is large ly iso lat e d to influe nc ing po sit ive daily outcome s and exclude s lo nge r term outcom e s like self - e st e em and inclusio n . Thus lo nge r term outcome s are ident ifie d as a dist ract io n which can div e rt design resourc e away from the inte re st s of the child. The mo de l illust rat e s howeve r that repe t it io n of these daily outcom es can ultim at e ly co nt ribut e to lo nge r term outcome s which sit unde r the well - be ing um bre lla yet these are depe nde nt on cult ure and not design per se. By co nt ex t ualising childre n?s achiev em e nt in a much bro ade r debat e , t he mo de l co nt radic t s curre nt motiv at io ns to ally schoo l design direc t ly to pedago gy . A great e r co nce nt rat i o n on com mo n da y - to - day so cial and phy sic al needs suppo rts lo ngev it y of design and an env iro nme nt in which achiev em e nt can flourish. 2. The u nde rst anding of the nature of childre n?s relat io nships with their phy sical schoo l. The applic at io n of a variet y of qualit at ive metho ds in Chapt e rs 3 and 4 has outline d the asso c iat ive nature of childre n?s relat io nship with the phy sic al schoo l which were ap plie d with equal weight ing to the pencil as they were to the ro o f, fo r exam ple . The wo rk highlight s the signific anc e of childre n's social asso c iat io ns in ho w they perce ive phy sic al env iro nm e nt s but also indic at e s ho w this is dete rm ine d by scho o l cult ure , d ire c t ly affe ct ing a child?s sense of well- be ing. This dom inant fo rm of relat io nship diffe rs from current co nce pt io ns which asse rt the im po rt anc e of Design's aest he t ic qualit ie s (the ?wow ? fact o r ) in achie v ing affec t ive go als like self- e ste em thro ugh ?inspi r ing env iro nm e nt s? . E xplo ring the effe ct of use and influe nce of cult ure the rese arc h ident ifie s the classroom as the focal po int fo r change and no t so cial space s or outdo o r learning. 2 97 3. Definit io n of belonging as a rese arc h too l The rese arc h ident i fie s and define s belonging as a pivo t al co nce pt sitt ing betw e en sho rt/ me dium and lo ng term outcom e s in the well - be ing mo de l. Use of this measure addre sse s the sho rtc om ings of both quant it a t iv e and qualit at iv e rese arc h, describe d in Chapt e r 1, in which qual it at iv e rese arc h has prov e d too gene ral and quant it at iv e researc h too specific . 4. An ethic al and rigo rous inte rpre t at io n of the child?s vo ice in the design of scho o ls The rese arc h technique s offe r a deepe r, mo re ro unded inte rpre t at io n of the child?s vo ice by asse ssing the cult ural and so cial env iro nme nt in which this vo ice is heard. The rese arc h balanc e s the respe c t ful treatm e nt of co nsc io usly expre sse d view s with mo re subt le approac he s to unde rst and the unde rly ing psy cho lo gic al env iro nme nt of scho o l s in which children liv e and learn. The rese arc h has ident ifie d crit ic al aspe c t s of social territ o ry, behav io ur and relat io nship s. 5. Insight into the challenge of change in mainst re am Educat io n The rese arc h metho do lo gy has so ught to unde rst and scho o l design in its fulle st philo so phic al, so cial and cult ural co nt ex t . Fro m this ho list ic metho do lo gy the challe nge s of mainst re am Educat io n emerge . Despite philo so phic al debat e , organisat io n is illust rat e d as taking prece de nc e over pedago gy and there fore sig nific ant ly defining of curric ulum and well - be ing. Ultim at e ly co nside rat io ns of behav io ur are describe d as unde rpinning and ofte n dev aluing the child - t e ac her relat io nship, which is paid scant atte nt io n in the current design debate . The call fo r increme nt al change no t transfo rmat io n also offe rs an alte rnat ive , mo re realist ic env iro nm e nt fo r pro gre ss. 6. Explanat io n of the relat io nship betw ee n scho o l archit e c t ure and furnit ure and the pro po sit io n of child - te ac her cent re d design Chapt e r 2 rev e ale d the inhe re nt unce rt ainty of this relat io nship. The social behav io ur of childre n, the needs of organisat io n of the schoo l and the cent ral child - t e ac he r relat io nship hav e been evaluate d to co nclude ho w design sho uld no w appro ac h prim ary sc ho o l design in which to make a step fo rw ard as oppo se d to transfo rm ing schoo ls. This thesis ident ifie s the classroo m as the fo cus in which the pro te c t iv e capac it y of archit e ct ure com bine s with varie d, no n - pre sc ript iv e furnit ure to accommo dat e the basic needs of childre n and yet to enric h the child - t e ac he r relat io nship. This co nt radic ts wide spre ad argum e nt s fo r abando ning the classro om co nce pt . 2 98 7. A dire c t co nt ribut io n to the design brie f Earlie r in this chapt e r 7 way s in which the design brie f can be info rme d and im pro ve d were prese nt e d. 7.6.2 Limitations of the research T he re was a num be r of lim it at io n s of the rese arc h unde rt ake n in this thesis. F irst ly , t he well -be ing mo de l was dev e lo pe d to unde rst and the lim it at io ns of the design brie f . It is by no m eans exhaust ive and while it was suffic ie nt to info rm the argum e nt s and the subse que nt rese arc h, it do es no t clearly diffe re nt iat e betw ee n its co nst it ue nt s. This means that there are overlaps of term ino lo gy such as betw ee n physical activity and expression, fo r exam ple , although Judge et al. (200 2) co nside r this to be ende m ic in Psy cho lo gy . Furthe rmo re the elem e nt s of the mo de l are no t allo c ate d any prio rity or weight ing in relat io n to a child?s well- be ing and are there fo re assum e d to be equal; this is unre a list ic . Last ly the need to prese nt the mo de l graphic ally risks over - sim plific at io n and henc e is open to subse que nt crit ic ism , as Maslow ?s (1943 ) pyram id fo und . A seco nd weak ne ss is that the thesis has applie d a grounde d rese arc h appro ac h in which three pri m ary schoo ls were engage d, one to info rm the init ial fo cus of the rese arc h and the othe r two to carry out a serie s of relat iv e ly ident ical studie s. The relev anc e of the findings of the rese arc h relie s part ly on the prem ise that the findings can be gene ralise d to othe r sim ilar schoo ls ; by inv o lv ing 300 childre n overall in the Midlands and the So ut h of England, gene ralisabilit y can only be co nside re d part ial. A furt he r lim it at io n of the rese arc h is that ethnic ity and disabilit y were no t co nside re d , b o th of wh ich are cite d as cent ral to scho o l aim s fo r inclusio n. Altho ugh so me evaluat io n was possible fro m the po int of view of ethnic it y , the num be r of childre n repre se nt ing diffe re nt gro ups was deeme d to o sm all to derive any meaningful findings. Lim itat io ns were equally ident ifie d in the primary studie s carrie d out as a who le class activ ity and tho se carrie d out on a one - t o - o ne basis with childre n. Class studie s were no tably susce pt ible to influe nc e from the teache rs and othe r childre n and po ssibly overst at e d the result s in Chapt e r 3 and 4. Howev e r, equally , the studie s expo se d classro om pract ic e which enco urage s childre n to think alike; this was relev ant when appraising the pote nt ial for the deve lo pm e nt of the indiv idual child in a prim ary schoo l cont e x t . Relat e d to this is the em erge nc e of diffe re nt metho ds at diffe re nt schoo ls in carry ing out the inv e st igat io n with childre n prese nt e d in Chapt e r 3 and 4. Krippe ndo rff (200 4) expre sse s co nce rns 2 99 abo ut how diffe re nt media can channe l respo nse s; the cho ice of writ ing a t Scho o l A and draw ing at Schoo l B meant that the co nt e nt analy sis was not carrie d out on an equal basis. Ho we ve r, once again, these cho ice s indic ate d the nature of the cult ural schoo l s being inv e st igat ed. Cert ainly , on refle c t io n, the draw ings appe are d to elicit mo re subconsc io us respo nse s, as Ro binso n (199 4 ) sugge st s. While the studie s carrie d out on a one - t o - o ne basis avo ide d the effe c t of the group, the num be r of childre n inv o lv e d (10 4 ) nece ssarily lim it e d the depth of enquiry with each child. Fo r exam ple the Identity Cards study which used pho to elicit at io n to deriv e a measure of a child?s sense of belo nging to scho o l, was rest ric t e d to appro x im at e ly 20 im age s per child. On the unde rst anding that the measure of belo nging wo uld becom e a mo re accurat e refle c t io n of the child the mo re pho to graphs were show n, 20 meant th at the measure was liable to be influe nc e d by com ple x im age s like the crucifix at Schoo l A or am biguo us im ages like the rece pt io n mirror at Schoo l S. Howev er, the num be r of im age s also repre se nte d an appro priat e amo unt with which to maint ain the child?s in te rest and there fo re gain engage d respo nse s. In retro spec t it wo uld hav e been useful fo r the cho ic e of selec t e d im age s to be mo re close ly matche d betw e e n the scho o ls. In gene ral the studie s were carrie d out as snapshot s of childre n?s scho o l expe rie nc e s which were susce pt ible to rapid change. Fo r exam ple , the result s of the so cial netwo rk analy sis co uld po te nt ially be affe ct e d by two best frie nds hav ing an argum e nt prio r to the study . Mo re fundam e nt ally, the appro ac h may not adequate ly refle c t the fluidit y o f childre n?s relat io nships and inst e ad unne c essarily im po se an adult perspe ct ive on their so cie t y . Howev e r, discussio ns with staff in each scho o l sugge ste d an acce pt able leve l of perce iv e d accurac y of the result s. While the chose n metho dolo gy of the belo ng ing studie s set out to refle ct the less co nsc io us relat io nships betwe e n childre n and their schoo l env iro nme nt s, the visual nature of the studie s has only im plie d the rele v anc e of othe r sense s. Fo r exam ple , a belo nging study which enco urage d childre n to exp erie nc e and to uch place s and obje ct s may have pro duc e d diffe re nt result s which wo uld po ssibly be less assoc iat ive . In Schoo l B sev e ral childre n refe rre d to the hardne ss of the schoo l env iro nm e nt in inform al co nve rsat io ns yet in Scho o l A and Schoo l S there was no ment io n of the feel of things despite the obv io us im plic at io n that to uching was im po rt ant . As a result the thesis has no t uncov e re d any signific ant findings relat ing to mate rials, fo r exam ple . 3 00 More gene rally , techno lo gy has been out of sco pe of this researc h as far as it does not exist in the study scho o ls bey o nd inte rac t ive white bo ards and class com pute rs. Its relev anc e to childre n?s so cial and phy sic al well- be ing and the sett ing can only there fo re be speculat e d upo n. Furt he rmo re , the thesis has no t co nce rte dly challe nged the assum pt io n that schoo ls sho uld be built to last and there fo re has made assessm e nt s base d on Dude k ?s (200 0 ) obse rv at io n that new or refurbishe d schoo ls are like ly to be funct io nal in 35 years? ti m e . Fo r this reaso n the thesis may unde rst at e the po ssibilit y of aest het ic s in schoo l and of the bene fit s of tying design to changing co nce pt io ns of pedago gy rathe r than cult ure , if a diffe re nt appro ac h were take n to PCP and BSF. Finally , while clear patt e rns in respo nse s can be sho w n to hav e dire c te d the co nclusio ns of this rese arc h, no stat ist ic al metho ds have been applie d to the results. Altho ugh Co hen et al. (20 00 ) argue that Like rt scale s are ?very useful dev ice s fo r the rese arc he r, as they build in a degree of sensit iv it y and diffe re nt iat io n of respo nse whilst still gene rat ing num be rs (p.2 53 ) ? they late r caut io n that ?subt le stat ist ic s require subt le data (p.255 ) .? On this basis, the leve l at which the result s hav e been analyse d is pro ba bly co rre ct altho ugh this do es mean that more co nclusive pro o fs cannot be claime d. 7.6.3 Further research T his thesis set out to info rm the design brie f fo r a new prim ary schoo l with a view of how childre n inte rac t with physic al schoo l env iro nm e nts and ensuing design princ iple s with which to appro ac h schoo l archite c t ure and furnit ure , and their inte rre lat io nship. There fo re, the next lo gic al step is to dev e lo p a rev ise d design brie f and validat e the findings thro ugh a design pro ce ss, whet her addre ssing the who le schoo l or aspec t s of the learning env iro nme nt , as this thesis has recomm e nde d. As a result of the nature of this rese arc h, perhaps the mo st signific ant challe nge will be fo und in the cult ural and organisat io nal change in schoo ls and there fo re the brie fing and design pro cess must be a co llabo rat ive one invo lv ing Educat io n and Design discipline s. Po ssibly as part of this pro ce ss furt he r ev aluat io n of m ate rials and of age - re lev ant design within the bro ad princ iple s pro pose d in this chapt e r are relev ant . By co nce nt rat ing on prim ary scho o ls as they curre nt ly and typic ally exist and operat e , I hav e only co nside re d techno lo gy as it appe are d in the study sch o o ls and there fo re furt her rese arc h in the light of the im plic at io ns of this thesis is valid. The relat io nship appraise d in this thesis betw ee n the phy sic al, cult ural and social schoo l can right fully be exte nde d to include the virt ual schoo l, including the co nt ribut io n of techno lo gy to the objec t cult ure of the scho o l. The po te nt ial im pact 3 01 of dev aluing the child - t e ache r relat io nship and relo c at io n of the locus of children?s well- be ing is of part ic ular inte re st . The rese arc h has repe at e dly refe rre d to the b ene fit s of obje ct s in a child?s dev e lopm e nt . This is an old tradit io n altho ugh it would appe ar to be unco o rdinat e d in to day ?s scho o ls. Whet he r obje ct s are an area in which presc ript io n is valuable as Mo ntesso ri and Fro e be l enco urage or whet he r this also pr o mo te s a co nt ro lling cult ure require s balanc e d rese arc h of the co gnit iv e dev e lo pm e nt al qualit ie s of obje c t s and their design com pare d with the cult ure they enge nde r. New or refurbishe d schoo ls, as Dude k (2000 ) ident ifie s, expec t to be operat iv e and useful in 35 years? tim e . The discussio n in Chapt e r 2 dete rm ine d that a sho rt e r life cy c le may mean that archit e c ts are less co nst raine d by co nce rns of changing pract ic e in Educat io n to co llabo rat e mo re clo se ly with pedago gy . Equally scho o ls with sho rt e r life expe c t ancy may be able to achiev e mo re thro ugh aest he t ic s whi ch I hav e sugge st e d is curre nt ly lo st thro ugh age and fam iliarit y . By way of recomm e ndat io n, I nve st igat io n generally is co nside re d to be wo rt hw hile with the require me nt to e valuat e the env iro nm e nt al and co st im p lic at io ns compare d with the lo nge r lifecy c le appro ac h . The aest he t ic co nt ribut io n in schoo ls is co nt inually thre at e ne d by time and financial pressure s leading to the fo rm ulaic repe t it io n of designs, as Left ly (200 9 ) actually recomm ends, and also the cult ural charging of the inte rnal comm unic at iv e env iro nme nt in schoo ls ; such cult ural charging po te nt ially subve rt s the impo rt anc e of aest he t ic s . There fo re , w hilst aest he t ics is no t viewe d as the first majo r step towards cult ural change its po te ntial co nt ribut io n to childre n?s well- be ing rem ains relat iv e ly unto uc he d by this thesis and warrant s furt he r inv e st igat io n. 7.7 Closing remarks T his thesis is abo ut unde rstanding childre n. Design fo llo w s thereaft e r. I ha v e demo nst rat e d the im po rt anc e of inv o lv ing childre n in rese arc h relat e d to the design of schoo ls in which their curre nt and future well - be ing is shape d. I have also highlight e d the jo int challe nge which face s the discipline s of Design and Educat io n if the o ppo rt unity of inv e stme nt in the fabric of schoo ls is to be fully explo it e d. I pro po se , ho we ve r, this will no t be a revo lut io n as many comm e ntat o rs urge . Fo rem ost , th is thesis advo cat e s the enric hm e nt of the child - t e ac he r relat io nship fro m which the fo rm of the phy sic al and inde e d the virt ual schoo l enviro nme nt s sho uld be deriv ed. 3 02 References Adle r, N. & Stew art , J., 2004 . S elf-esteem . [Online ] Available at: http: // ww w .m ac se s.uc sf.edu/ Re se arc h/P syc ho so c ial/no t e bo ok / se lfe st e em .htm l [Acce sse d 3rd May 2008 ]. Ainsc o w , M., 2003 . 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Australian Occupational Health Journal , 5 5 ( 1 ) , pp.2 - 11 . 324 Appendix 1: Exemplar design brief (DfES, 2003b) 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 Appendix 2: Examples of models of well -being 3. Conceptual model of School well-being. Konu & Rimpel? (2002b) Figure A 2-1 Examples of variations of models and perspectives of well-being 1. ?a?lo??? hierarch? of need? Maslow & Frager (1987) 2. Wellbeing model Smith (2006) 340 Figure A2 -1 Examples of variations of models and perspectives of well-being (Continued) 4. Wheel of Wellness Myers et al. (2000) 5. Conceptual model of well-being ?ana?ia?p?ni et al. ?????? 341 6. The Human Scale Development Model. Max-Neef et al. (1987) Figure A2 -1 Examples of variations of models and perspectives of well-being (Continued) 342 Appendix 3: School design basics related to the well-being model Basics The Well-being model Figure A3-1 Basics of school design contributing to well-being Motivation Enjoyment Achievement Social interaction Contribution Air quality Participation Knowledge Daylighting Successes Skills/ Attributes Self-esteem Health Accessibility Recognition Self- concepts Identification /Belonging Social responsibility Economic well-being Economic Advantage Temperature Stimulation Confidence Inclusion Personal identity Social Capital Social Cohesion Ergonomics Expression Social Identity Freedom Safety/ security Relaxation Personal responsibility Nutrition Effort Control Carbon footprint Physical activity Respect Hygiene Creation Trust Understanding Relationships Affection Health 343 Appendix 4: School profiles The studies were carried out in two primary schools located in quite different socio-economic settings. These are School S in Southampton and School A in a village near Andover, Hampshire. Supportive exploratory research was carried out in School B in Birmingham. Despite different socio-economic and architectural contexts, both study schools sustain a central position and role within their respective communities. The centre of School A comprises the school, the pub, the church and the village shop. ?My whole family?s been? says Connor? there is a sense of tradition and family involvement which exists within the school. Local sources suggest that School A was established in 1831 and, with the coronation of Queen Victoria in 1837, it can be broadly referred to as Victorian. Built in the 1960s, School S is similarly central to its community. Its estate location is in an area close to Southampton International Airport and which is overlooked by an imposing factory. Both offer a source of ?obs for the children?s parents which, according to the head teacher, has a considerable influence on the aspirations of the children and the importance the families place on schooling. ?I?m going to be a working man,? as one of the boys told me. According to CILT, the National Centre for Languages, in 2008 there were 17,205 maintained primary schools in England for 4,087,790 pupils. This equates to an average of 238 pupils per school(CILT, 2009). In this respect both School A and School S are smaller than average. The official definition of a small school is a school that has a roll of 100 children or less (DCSF, 2007); while School A is at the top of this range it can be considered a small school. School S, on the other hand, is larger with a roll of approximately 170 children(DCSF, 2007). Small schools often exist and operate as a result of their rural nature and School A?s village location is evidence of this. 4.1 School A 4.1.1 Introducing the school The Ofsted report carried out at School A in October 2007 describes the school as: ..... a small rural primary school, which admits pupils mostly from the immediate area. Pupil numbers are increasing over time. Almost all pupils are from White British backgrounds. 344 The number of pupils identified with learning difficulties and disabilities is above average. Pupils are taught in mixed aged classes(Ofsted, 2006). ?fsted?s summary of School A appropriately indicates the mixed age class approach which is necessitated by the smaller intake of children. In fact it is in this type of school, though perhaps even smaller, where Medd developed the Finmere model, emerging in 1959. However, the central concepts of team teaching and other collaborative methods which the open nature of the school at Finmere enabled are not easily achieved in School A. 4.1.2 The School A environment The site has developed over time and the old school house is no longer part of the school. Today, having entered through the security gate and passed a temporary wooden clad classroom to the right, the visitor finds themselves in a small walled playground with various markings on the floor. The temporary classroom accommodates Class 3, the Year 5/6 class. Although rows would be easier to accommodate, inside the desks and chairs have been arranged to provide a form of grouping more in line with modern teaching ideas (see Chapter 2). The space is constrained and in practice requires regular movement and alteration. This classroom is also used for the school assemblies. The playground contains a variety of benches, including what is referred to as the friendship bench which features in the belonging studies. These benches are used socially but also for outdoor eating at lunchtime if the weather is fine. At the far end of the playground is a small outbuilding which is both the staff room and an equipment store; each function has a different door for access. At the far end, further to the left and still on the perimeter of the playground is another wooden shed used to house equipment. Adjacent to the Class 3?s temporary classroom is the head teacher?s office which is also located on the edge of the play area. This is a wooden clad temporary raised flat roof structure in the same style as Class 3. On the opposite side of the playground is the main school building which is a red brick, slate pitched roof single-storey building. The first door leads to the small school office and a corridor which contains the library and leading off which are the toilets. This corridor heads directly to the classroom which houses Class 2, a Year 3/4 class. The room is a high ceilinged well-lit yet narrow classroom boasting its original wooden beams. Desks are grouped together, in a typical primary 345 fashion, so that four to six children can sit at them. This leaves only limited circulation space. Unlike most primary school classrooms there is no seated space at the front. At the back of the classroom are an IT area and a very small cloakroom. Contrasting with this is probably the largest teaching space in the school used for Reception and Year 1 children; this class is known as the Puffins. Entrance to the Puffins follows a sharp turn to the right from the main corridor. Smaller tables and chairs are similarly grouped but the area feels spacious and manages to contain a play area and an open cloakroom. The cloakroom is on the wall adjoining the playground and leads towards the second door opening out from the main building onto the playground. Alongside this is the school kitchen from which meals are served in the Puffins classroom at lunchtime. At the back of the Puffins class is the Year 1/2 classroom, the Turtles. This is perhaps the smallest teaching space but its high ceiling and glass doors afford a spacious feel. Once again there are three groups of tables and a seated area in front of the interactive whiteboard. The classroom doors lead out onto a raised, enclosed grassy area which also contains a wooden toy shed. 4.2 School S 4.2.1 Introducing the school The Ofsted description of School S highlights differences between the two schools: The school is smaller than many primary schools. It serves a community that includes some areas with very high levels of social deprivation. The proportion of pupils entitled to free school meals is twice the national average. The percentage of pupils with learning difficulties and disabilities is well above the national average. The proportion of pupils who do not speak English as their first language is above average and is increasing. The proportion of pupils from minority ethnic groups is also above average. There have been considerable changes of staff since the last inspection. More pupils enter and leave the school at times other than the beginning of the school year than in most schools(Ofsted, 2008). 346 4.2.2 The School S environment School S is a very different architectural prospect from School A. While School A has evolved and grown over time and space needs to be continually managed, School S, a 1950s/60s building, does not suffer from these restrictions. It features a layout designed around a central hall and kitchen. The far end of the hall leads to the classroom area housing the infants, i.e. Reception, Year 1, Year 2 and Year 3. There are three classrooms, two of which lead to a covered and enclosed outdoor space. The third faces the dedicated library which is a distinct building, sited between the two schools, and is only accessible from the playground. Despite the increase in furniture size which is apparent in the Year 2/3 classroom, the rooms are generally spacious. Typically they contain grouped tables and chairs and a seated area in front of the interactive whiteboard. The central chest of drawers is a feature of all the classes with a drawer allocated for the possessions and books of each child. The Year 1/2 classroom, the Pandas, also contains very detailed display which appears to be the work of the teacher rather than the children. On the other side of the hall is located an open reception area with a recently updated front desk. The large display in the reception area emphasises the School S community with images of the children and their work. A large blue board behind the school secretary details the School S mission statement. Beyond the reception is a corridor which leads passed the head teacher?s office and the staff room to the junior school. Here there are three classrooms each of which can be opened to the outside. The ICT suite is included in the circulation space, as are the ?uniors? toilets. The school also benefits from extra space known as the booster room, the music room and SEAL (Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning) space. The music room is doubly used for breakfast club and recent changes to the layout allow the prospect of a community role for this space. The playground area is expansive compared with School A and is split into three distinct areas for the reception children, the infants, and the juniors. The junior playground is dominated by the marked-out football pitch. Similar in principle to the friendship bench at School A there is a buddy stop which is like a bus stop at which children can stand if they are in need of a friend. 347 There is also a good sized playing field used in fine weather. 4.3 School B 4.3.1 Introducing the school School B was opened in 1950 by Birmingham County Borough Council and their resident architects. The school typified the regeneration that was seen in Birmingham after the Second World War, particularly evident in the rapid development of the local area. With a population of 460 children School B is a large school, described by Ofsted: This large primary school takes most of its pupils from the local estates and tower blocks of Castle Bromwich. The proportion of pupils eligible for free school meals is well above average. An average number of pupils have been identified as having learning difficulties or disabilities. Pupils' attainment on entry to the Nursery is well below average, with language and social skills being especially weak (Ofsted, 2006).? 4.3.2 The School B environment The school was designed prior to Plowden and is devoid of any obvious contemporary considerations of child-centred schooling apart from one area of open corridor space which allows for collaboration between classes. Mainly, however, School B was designed to accommodate the population growth of the locality, with 14 classrooms in use by 1961. Entrance to School B is an unremarkable event and beauty and visual impact are not qualities easily attributable to the exterior of the school; its persona is unexceptional and almost non- existent. The unmistakably post-War frontage is testament to the fact that primary schools of that era were manifestly unconcerned with their visual impact. In this respect School B is a good example of design devoid of aesthetics and contrived messages. While its frontage has almost no impact, at the same time it does not promise anything the school cannot deliver or embody messages which have long since lost their relevance. School B?s access is via a controlled back gate which leads directly to the junior school and incorporates a separate vehicle entrance for teacher parking. The front entrance provides the main thoroughfare for both arriving and leaving children together with vehicle access for teachers and visitors. Today?s schools will separate vehicular and pedestrian access as a matter of course. 348 Rather than using the main school entrance, on arrival children and parents will normally skirt the school building and access the school from the playground, entering close to their respective classrooms. This limits the main entrance to a reception area for visitors or parents with children. Access is controlled by a buzzer and intercom system which releases the door to lead the visitor into a slightly claustrophobic, warm lobby. The lobby is generously decorated with children?s work and a sliding communication window opens onto the school office. ?rom a visitor?s point of view it is an awkward although understandably secure process. There are two office chairs upholstered in fabric within the lobby but they do little more than obstruct an already confined space; a token gesture to assign a semblance of a desired space that this area cannot hope to be. The restricted space also renders the children?s large bus display too close to the observer to generate any real comprehension or appreciation. I wonder how long it has been there. Once signed in, the opposite door is released to allow access to the school. School B is physically split into an infant school and a junior school, both having their own halls, but sharing a dining room. The infant school is at ground floor level apart from the computer room which is situated above the office/reception area and is used by both the infants and the juniors. Saint identifies that many schools, particularly primary, came to be built on a single level following the introduction of new stringent daylighting requirements brought in 1945 and the subsequent use of structures to allow for taller windows, clerestory windows and roof lights (Saint, 1987). In School B, the central corridor forms the spine of the infants with the hall, dining room, staffroom, head teacher?s room and one classroom on one side with the rest of the classrooms on the other. The central corridor in School B is a busy affair. It has plentiful natural light with windows located along one side. Although the corridor?s width is suitable for comfortable passage alone, the space has been allocated additional tasks; the corridor includes a small themed seating area near the hall and a library at the reception end. In School B the use of displays is uncoordinated centrally and teacher-driven. It is purely down to each individual teacher?s discretion. School B was designed with the classroom as the understood space of teaching and learning. The Year 1 classroom has good natural light and feels spacious. There is a large window facing South 349 East and a line of clerestory windows facing North West. In my perception the generous ceiling height, approximately 5.5m, adds to the sense of space. However, it is feasible that, for a child half my height and with a similar space preference, a relative 2.7m would also feel generous. The classroom d?cor is a little tired with chipped paintwork and the room contains typical FORME- style rectangular furniture with its associated child-sized chairs. The spaciousness of the room allows the tables, which are grouped in threes, to be well spread and still leave a carpet area for sitting on the floor in front of the teacher and the interactive whiteboard. The teacher?s chair is a low casual chair chosen for appropriate for interaction with children on the floor. The junior school is on two levels. Prominent on the outside of the building is a snake design seating area and just inside the building are some toadstool seats fixed to the ground. The ground floor consists of a central corridor with classrooms on the South East side and work rooms and a music room facing North West. The corridor is dark. It is decorated with work related to projects the school has been involved with. The hall is at the far end of this corridor beyond a library/reading area which has some sofas and soft stools arranged near a rocket pod which contains a seat and a computer. The ceiling heights are much more restricted and the corridor has no direct access to natural light. Upstairs, access to the classrooms is via two flights of stairs so that the four central classrooms are directly adjacent negating the need for a central corridor. There is an access door between the two classrooms on the South West side and an access door between the two classrooms on the North East side. It interested me in the light of the open plan discussion how distracting it was when the door was open and the other class was visible and audible. The colour scheme is indeterminate, in keeping with the rest of the school. The Year 5 classroom, located on the first floor of the junior school building, has a very different feel to it from Year 1. It relies more obviously on artificial light, particularly on dull days. The effectiveness of its skylight designed to capture sunlight from the south is compromised by the corrugated perspex, wiring and grubbiness which mask it. With a lower ceiling height and larger children and furniture, this room is cluttered and feels cramped and awkward. However, the lower ceiling height does afford the opportunity for a hanging display which would be impossible in the Year 1 classroom. Here the paper lanterns and a planet display designed by the children decorate the ceiling. 350 The wall displays, primarily designed to impart information are a little complex and seem to function more as wallpaper. Additionally the layout means that the teacher is quite often talking to the backs of children. Outdoors there is a large infant playground containing some snake furniture and a large junior playground marked with various games and sports pitches. Adjacent to corridor there is a seating area in which large stakes designed as coloured pencils provide the learning-related aesthetic. The playgrounds lead to a playing field. 351 Appendix 5: Example of c onsent form ? School S This form will be retained by School S for reference. The information you provide will be retained for five years and then disposed of confidentially. CONSENT FOR PHOTOGRAPHS / VIDEOING I give permission for my son/daughter to be involved in the Belonging and School Design Project and to have photos and videos taken. The images and video will be used by Rob Cullis, a PhD design student at Buckinghamshire Chilterns University College (BCUC), to study the relationship between a child?s sense of belonging and their school environment. This will then be used to create new design ideas to continue to improve the School S learning environment. The children will also be involved in activities within their classes which will look at how they feel and respond to their school surroundings. Some of the images/video footage will be used in a final report and in presentations to organisations involved in designing schools. All use will be appropriately agreed between the school and BCUC. We will not use any personal information that could identify your child beyond their first name and age in conjunction with the images/ footage. IM PORTANT This form must be completed by a parent or guardian if participant is under 18 years of age and by the participant if he/she is over 18 years of age. Name of Participant: Class: Male or Female Address of Participant: Postcode: Tel (Inc STD) Date of Birth Name: Relationship to Participant: Tel: Address: Postcode: Alt. Tel: 352 STATEMENT: I understand the information above and (please tick below) ? I agree ? I DO NOT agree to my son/daughter taking part and being photographed/ videoed and the images/ footage being used in the report and presentations, provided personal details are withheld from the public. I will inform my son/daughter of the decision that has been made on their behalf. Signed ???????????????????? Parent/Guardian Date ?../?../?.. 353 Appendix 6: Favourite colours The following schematics illustrate the results of a study with the four classes at School A and School S. Each child was asked to point out their favourite colour on a colour chart following which the results were compiled by gender and Key Stage. Figure A6-1 ?o??? and Girl?? colo?r preference? ??? ? indicates number of children by colour choice In Key Stage 1, illustrated in Figure A6-1, darker blues and bright red dominates for boys. However there is a range which encompasses dark blue, light blue, red, pinks and purples and greens and yellow. For girls pinks clearly dominate, and linked with this is the choice of purple. This is followed by blues although not the navy colours associated with the boys? choices. More limited but still evident is the choice of green and red. 354 Figure A6-2 Boys' and Girls' Colour preferences KS2 - indicates number of children by colour choice By Key Stage 2, illustrated in Figure A6-2, bright red dominates for boys and outweighs the darker blues. It is relevant that one particular red is chosen. The choice of pink for boys appears to diminish with age, perhaps being culturally and socially influenced. The overall range of choices, however is broad and encompasses dark blue, light blue, red, and greens. For girls pinks and purples dominate. The purples illustrate a development of preference beyond the ?baby? pinks. ?espite this the responses are much more polarised towards pinks and blues. Figure A6-3 Boys' and Girls' Colour preferences KS1 and KS2 - indicates number of children by colour choice 355 Appendix 7: Identity card images, associative ratings and category 7.1 School S - Year 1 & 2 Figure A7-1 Identity cards, associative ratings and category - School S Year 1 & 2 Cultural Aesthetic/ Functional Social A Junior Toilets 0 3 2 Architecture B Hall Amplifier 1 3 2 Object C Pencil 3 1 0 Object D School Logo 3 1 2 Communication E Trophy 3 2 2 Object F Playground Wall 0 3 2 Architecture G Coat Hook 2 2 2 Furniture Category Associative Rating 356 Figure A7-1 Identity cards, associative ratings and category - School S Year 1 & 2 (Continued) Cultural Aesthetic/ Functional Social H Ability Group Sign 3 1 1 Communication I Paper Mache Giraffe 3 2 2 Object J Classroom Tile 0 3 0 Decor K Class Bear 3 2 3 Object L Car Mat 1 3 2 Object M School S Code 3 1 2 Communication N Hall Floor 3 3 3 Architecture O Southampton FC 0 1 1 Decor Associative Rating Category 357 Figure A7-1 Identity cards, associative ratings and category - School S Year 1 & 2 (Continued) Cultural Aesthetic/ Functional Social P Access Road 0 2 1 Architecture Q Hall Rafter 0 3 2 Architecture R Canopy 1 3 1 Architecture S Junior Playground 1 2 3 Architecture T Wooden Train 0 3 2 Furniture U School S Hands 3 3 3 Decor V Onions 2 2 3 Object Associative Rating Category 358 7.2 School S - Year 5 Figure A7-2 Identity cards, associative ratings and category - School S Year 5 Cultural Aesthetic/ Functional Social A School Logo 3 1 2 Communication B Trophy 3 2 2 Object C Hall Floor 3 3 3 Architecture D Junior Playground 1 2 3 Architecture E Reception Mirror 1 3 0 Object F Hall Rafter 0 3 2 Architecture G Access Road 0 1 1 Architecture Associative Rating Category 359 Figure A7-2 Identity cards, associative ratings and category - School S Year 5 (Continued) Cultural Aesthetic/ Functional Social H Vent 0 3 0 Architecture I School S Hands 3 3 2 Decor J Classroom Rules 3 2 0 Communication K Bullying Notice 3 1 2 Communication L Border 1 3 0 Decor M Newspaper 2 3 0 Object N Number Line 3 2 0 Object O Reception Light 0 3 0 Furniture Associative Rating Category 360 Figure A7-2 Identity cards, associative ratings and category - School S Year 5 (Continued) Cultural Aesthetic/ Functional Social P School S Code 3 1 2 Communication Q Plug 1 2 0 Object R Ceiling Panel 2 2 0 Decor S Hall Pillar 3 3 2 Architecture T Fire Exit Sign 2 2 0 Communication U Goal Posts 2 3 3 Object V Fire Extinguisher 2 2 0 Object Category Associative Rating 361 7.3 School A - Year 1 & 2 Figure A7-3 Identity cards, associative ratings and category - School A Year 1 & 2 362 Figure A7-3 Identity cards, associative ratings and category - School A Year 1 & 2 (Continued) 363 Figure A7-3 Identity cards, associative ratings and category - School A Year 1 & 2 (Continued) Cultural Aesthetic/ Functional Social N Step 1 3 3 Architecture O Charter 3 1 2 Communication P School Badge 3 1 2 Communication Q Library 3 2 0 Object R Thatched Roof 1 3 0 Architecture S Fan 2 3 0 Furniture T Star of the Day Sign 3 1 2 Communication Category Associative Rating 364 7.4 School A - Year 5 & 6 Figure A7-4 Identity cards, associative ratings and category - School A Year 5 & 6 365 Figure A7-4 Identity cards, associative ratings and category - School A Year 5 & 6 (Continued) 366 Figure A7-4 Identity cards, associative ratings and category - School A Year 5 & 6 (Continued) Cultural Aesthetic/ Functional Social P Thatched Roof 1 3 0 Architecture Q Projector 2 3 1 Object R Wall Display 3 3 1 Decor S Step 1 3 3 Architecture T Winner Board 3 2 1 Object U Vent 0 3 2 Architecture V Library 3 2 0 Object Category Associative Rating 367 Appendix 8: Calculation of belonging The belonging calculation can therefore be split into belonging to the Cultural school, the social school and the aesthetic?physical school. ?or example, the child?s Likert rating of the School S Code was 2. This can be assumed to be apportioned in the following way: 8 .1 Image 1 ? ?eth?s ?i?ert ?atin? ? ? Image 1, like all images, was rated on a scale of 0 to 3 for its associative properties, shown in Figure A8-1: 3 Cultural 1 Functional/Aesthetic 1 Social Figure A8 -1 Rating of Image 1 - Cultural, social and functional/aesthetic The Likert rating of 2 can therefore be apportioned in the following way: Cultural: 3/(3+1+1) = 60% of 2 relates to identification with the cultural school, i.e. 1.2. The maximum possible for this image, by comparison, is 60% of 4 , i.e. 2.4. Functional/Aesthetic: 1/(3+1+1) = 20% of 2 relates to identification with the physical/aesthetic school, i.e. 0.4. The maximum possible for this image, by comparison, is 20% of 4, i.e. 0.8. Social: 1/(3+1+1) = 20% of 2 relates to identificati on with the social school, i.e. 0.4. The maximum possible for this image, by comparison, is 20% of 4, i.e. 0.8. 8 .2 Image 2 ? ?eth?s ?i?ert ?atin? ? ? 2 Cultural 3 Functional/Aesthetic 1 Social Figure A8 -2 Rating of Image 2 - Cultural, social and functional/aesthetic 368 The Likert rating of 3 can therefore be apportioned in the following way: Cultural: 2/(2+3+1) = 33.3% of 3 relates to identification with the cultural school, i.e. 1.0. The maximum possible for this image, by comparison, is 33.3% of 4, i.e. 1.33. Functional/Aesthetic: 3/(2+3+1) = 50% of 3 relates to identification with the physical/aesthetic school, i.e. 1.5. The maximum possible for this image, by comparison, is 50% of 4, i.e. 2.0. Social: 1/(2+ 3+1) = 16.7% of 3 relates to identification with the social school, i.e. 0.5. The maximum possible for this image, by comparison, is 16.7% of 4, i.e. 0.67. 8 .3 Calculating belonging Taking these images together: Cultural: 1.2 + 1.0 = 2.2 relates to identifica tion with the cultural school out of a possible 2.4 + 1.33 = 3.73, indicating an overall belonging to the cultural (physical) school of 58.9%. Functional/Aesthetic: 0.4 + 1.5 = 1.9 relates to identification with the functional/aesthetic (physical) school out of a possible 0.8 + 2.0 = 2.8, indicat ing an overall belonging to the functional/aesthetic (physical) school of 67.9% Social: 0.4 + 0.5 = 0.9 relates to identification with the social school out of a possible 0.8 + 0.67 = 1.47, indicating an overall b elonging to the social (physical) school of 58.9%. The belonging develops in this way with each of the images contributing to an overall figure for a child?s belonging to the cultural school (58.9%), functional/aesthetic school (67.9%) and social school (58.9%), and then an overall belonging which in this case is the mean of 50% (Likert rating 2 out of a possible 4) and 75% (Likert rating 3 out of a possible 4) = 62.5%. 369 8 .4 Representing belonging in index form Supposing there are three children whose belonging is shown in Table A8-1 in which the results are represented as a percentage and an index. Beth Simon Marcus Overall Cultural % 52% 88% 76% 72% Index 75 128 110 104 Functional/aesthetic % 45% 95% 55% 65% Index 65 138 80 94 Social % 50% 90% 70% 70% Index 72 130 101 101 Overall belonging % 49% 91% 67% 69% Index 71 132 97 100 Table A8 -1 Belonging Results as a percentage and index for Beth, Simon, and Marcus in relation to the Cultural, Social, and Functional/Aesthetic School The mean Overall Belonging for the class is always shown as 100. Its components, like cultural belonging, are shown in relation to it. 8 .5 Calculating recognition and understanding During the exercise Beth, for example, will also demonstrate a level of recognition and understanding. For example, if she recognises and fully understands what the School S Code represents, this is a level two 2 in Figure A8-3 which is the maximum and therefore 100%. 0 The child does not recognise the image. 1 The child recognises the image and its location in school. 2 The child recognises the image and its location in school and understands what it is/its purpose or meaning. 0% 50% 100% Figure A8 -3 Example: Beth's Recognition and Understanding Level for The School S Code If, for example Beth?s recognition and understanding results for five images are 100?, 0?, ?0?, 100% a nd 50%, her overall figure is calculated as the mean of these, i.e. 60%. 370 The studies in Chapter 3 and 4 suggested that children?s intimate knowledge of their environment was related to positive feelings about the school. The detail of places and things they did not like was less well articulated which suggests that recognition and understanding is likely to be connected with the sense of belonging measure. It is recognised also however that recognition can also reflect memory and intelligence, or age, rather than positive identification and therefore recognition and understanding is not incorporated in the measure of belonging but is compared with it. 371 Appendix 9: Developing a class social map Figure A9 -1 Collating the children's social maps With a map from each child, an overall picture of the class social network was obtained by aggregating each child?s responses. The numbers associated with each circle on each child?s social map, shown in Figure 5-6 in Chapter 5, represent a rating of the closeness of each relationship from one to four. Figure A9-1 illustrates how these ratings are collated to provide totals for each child. The method identifies the child with the lowest aggregate rating as the most socially central child, and therefore at the centre of the social circle. In this example, the most central child is George. This child is then notionally placed at the centre of the circle in position 0. The total size of the social circle is then measured by how far the child with the highest aggregate rating is from the centre. This is done by taking their aggregate rating (52) minus the aggregate rating of the central child (36). The resultant number, 16, is meaningful only as a relative figure which enables the position of each child in the social circle to be assessed. For example, with Alex at the centre, Jessica is at 4 and Thomas is at position 12, indicating their relative centrality/popularity. In order to allow different classes to be compared, the effect of class size needs to be negated. In the example in Figure A9-1, 16 is divided by the number of ratings each child would receive, which is the number of children in the class minus 1. (The children position themselves in the centre of their own map which is zero-rated and therefore does not count). This produces a figure of 0.94. 372 Finally, in order to reduce the number of decimal places to simplify the presentation, this figure is multiplied by 10. For example, 0.94 is presented as 9.4. Considering two different scenarios provides the social extremes which any one class can theoretically present. If, through the mapping process, every child received the same aggregate rating this would mean that every child is equally central, or popular. In this case every child would be at the centre and the size of the circle would be zero. In contrast, it is possible that Simon receives a full complement of ?1?s. In a class of 10, his aggregate rating, including his own zero rating, is: 0 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 9 In the same class assume Lucy receives all ???s from the other children, making her aggregate rating: 0 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 = 36 Whatever the other ratings are in the class, Simon can only be at the social centre of the class and, correspondingly, Lucy must be on the social edge of the class. These positions can be shared but no one can be more central than Simon or more distant than Lucy. The size of the social circle for this class is therefore: [(36 - 9)/9] x 10=30 Hence for all classes, whatever the number of pupils, the maximum possible size of the social circle is a radius of 30. In the example illustrated in Figure A9-1, the size (radius) of the social circle is 9.4. If the size of another class? social map is 10.?, this indicates that the least central child is further out from the centre and it is potentially a less socially inclusive class. However, understanding how the other children are distributed within each social circle is necessary to understand the true picture. 373 Appendix 10: Belonging studies - Year 1 & 2 10.1 Describing the classes ? Year 1 and 2 10.1.1 School S: Year 1 and 2 (Pandas) 10.1.1.1 The social circle Figure A10 -1 Whole class social circle - School S Year 1 & 2 The si?e of the Pandas? circle is 9.8 which indicates the position of the most outer child relative to the most central child. If the individual ratings given to the most central child remain the same, the maximum possible Pandas? circle would be 18.9, signifying social isolation for one or more children. The Pandas, however, do not appear to demonstrate this type of social exclusion. The Pandas? social circle is characterised by the tight social centre illustrated in Figure A10-1; the circle is split into thirds referred to as the centre, middle, and outer sections, which each includes a third of the children. These compare with the dotted lines which represent an evenly distributed social class described in Chapter 5 based on the same size of social circle. It is noticeable that, despite a tight centre, the middle circle is relatively stretched which suggests that the children in the outer circle are not overly exposed or isolated. 374 Figure A10 -2 Class social circles - gender comparisons - School S Year 1 & 2 Looking at the divide by gender illustrated in Figure A10-2, the girls? circle is much wider (16.?) than the class social circle. The centre is made up entirely of girls and, in particular, is dominated by Year 1 girls. Two girls are notably in the outer circle. The social circle according to the boys is also wider (13.8) but it would seem that girls are more discriminating in this class. Though dominated by boys, unlike any of the other gender-based circles to be shown for other classes, it includes a girl in the centre. Secondly, looking at the individuals in each of the segments, the boys? circle is much less structured around age. What is apparent from Figure A10-2 is that gender has an overriding influence on the social structure of the Pandas? class, to the point where two social circles can be considered to co-exist. The fact that both the girls? and the boys? social circles are wider than the class? social circle implies that, when taken together, the overall social positions of children even out. While this outcome was predicted, the results for the Pandas are more pronounced than expected. 10.1.1.2 Relationships Assessing the types of relationships across the whole class, each child on average has a reciprocated close friendship with 2.1 children. Looking at how this is distributed across the social circle shows an imbalance: 2.9 in the central circle, reducing to 1.8 in the middle circle and 1.6 per child in the outer circle. This is higher for the girls, particularly in the outer circle. It can be argued that close reciprocated friendships are a natural and healthy aspect of the class society and a lower number of this type of relationship might be expected towards the outer edge of the social 375 circle. However significant imbalances in these figures can provide a picture of a cliquey or exclusive class, for example. On average children in the class matched 7.8 of their relationships which represent 29% of the 27 relationships they have in the class. In the social centre this increases to 9.3 (35% ), with a gradual decrease to the outer circle to 6.4 (24%). One year 2 boy and one year 1 girl, matched 13 (48%) and 12 (44%) of their relationships respectively which demonstrates a high degree of social awareness relative to the rest of the class. All those with the lowest matches are noticeably on the outer edges of the class, the lowest being 3 matches (11%). An indicator of mutual disinclination towards other children can be found where both children within a relationship have positioned the other child in an outer circle rated as a four. If this is a common feature of the class, it can be considered to be antagonistic. On average, a child in the Pandas class will have one mutual disinclination. This figure is 0.8 in the centre circle, 0.7 in the middle circle and 1.6 in the outer social circle. The highest number is 3 expressed by 3 outer children. 10.1.2 School A: Year 1 and 2 (Turtles) 10.1.2.1 The social circle Figure A10 -3 Whole class social circle - School A Year 1 & 2 The size of the School A Turtles circle is 9.4 which is slightly smaller than that of the School S Pandas. Despite what would appear to be a more inclusive class by nature of its smaller social circle, Figure A10-3 indicates how the children are spread across this circle and suggests that the children in the outer circle are more remote. 376 Figure A10 -4 Class social circles - gender comparisons ? School A Year 1 & 2 Considering the social circles by gender shown in Figure A10-4 two very distinct social circles exist in a very similar way to the School S Pandas. The girls? social circle is correspondingly dominated by the girls and is much wider (18) than the overall class? circle and the boys? circle. A hierarchy based on age is also suggested although in School A the older girls prevail compared with the younger girls in School S. A rough observable pattern, working outwards from the centre, is: Year 2 girl, Year 1 girl, Year 1 boy, Year 2 boy. Beyond the centre, the circle becomes much more stretched. The social circle according to the boys is also wider (16) and the centre is typically dominated by boys. Jessica, the most central girl appears at 6.2 with Julie and Samantha at position 10. The centre is less structured around age. It is noticeable that the Matthew is the second most outer child. It would appear that boys and girls roughly concur with are the less central children exposing them in the overall class circle. 10.1.2.2 Relationships The School A Turtles present the opportunity to compare the School S relationships. At School A, each child on average has a reciprocated close friendship with 1.7 children. This is 2.2 in the central circle, reducing to 1.7 in the middle circle and 1 per child in the outer circle. Overall these figures are lower than the School S Pandas. Most noticeable is what can be viewed as a much less tight knit centre circle than the Pandas but also an outer circle in which children have less close relationships. 377 The GDBD study in Chapter 3 revealed the dependence of children on the teacher and perhaps this more relaxed social environment and more intense academic environment is reflected in the overall intensity of the social circle. The results at School S indicated that children?s understanding of their relationships declined towards the outer circle. This is replicated at School A although the percentage of relationships matched is higher. On average children in the class matched 6.3 of their relationships which represent 37% compared with 29% at School S, although possibly related to fewer relationships in a smaller class. Overall, boys matched fewer of their relationships which could demonstrate lesser ability to appraise social relationships but could also be predicated by a more relaxed attitude which is evident in the smaller social circles. It is apparent that in School S the outer children are more affected by disinclination or, possibly, antagonism. 10.2 Year 1 & 2: Social position Reviewing the social circles against the results from Good Bad Happy Sad enables certain conclusions to be made about the formation of these social circles and what aspects of the child?s school context might relate to their popularity. The study so far suggests that the social circles are reasonably distinct by gender and therefore the comparison with Good Bad Happy Sad is best done in this way. Looking for commonality across both the ?ear 1?2 girls? social circles discloses certain characteristics of a socially central girl. Firstly more central girls typically perceive their overall behaviour to be medium. They will also typically be perceived by the teacher to be less able, most evident in School S (See Figure A10-5) but they will not perceive their own ability to be low. 378 While this provides a common picture for the two classes, Figure A10-5 illustrates the clearest relationships indicated by the year 1 & 2 girls at School S which suggest that girls? popularity is linked to characteristics which might be considered at odds with a learning and achievement culture. Girls in the highest learning group are markedly less popular. Fig ure A10 -6 School A Year 1 & 2 girls - School context measures related to the social circle Figure A10 -5 School S Year 1 & 2 girls - School context measures related to the social circle 379 In School A (Figure A10-6), by contrast, girls who are more aligned to the learning and achievement of the school are more central and, in addition, girls do not appear to be particularly socially isolated on the basis of learning. Certainly considering happiness learning together with the alternative measure, happiness around school , confirms that girls? overall happiness in School A Turtles is associated with how central they are socially whereas in School S it is the opposite. By comparison, boys exhibit different characteristics. Year 1 and 2 boys, will generally be more socially central if they are older. In both schools there is evidence that the most socially central boys are in the highest learning groups, most emphatically seen at School S (Figure A10-7). The application of learning or ability groups reflects a culture which developed after Plowden to largely support teaching by stage rather than age (Brogden, 2007). They are reflective of the school culture as the child perceives it and particularly of the public judgments made by the teacher about a child. It appears that for a boy in this case his popularity is dependent in some way on success within a culture. In the reverse, whether a teacher?s perceptions of a child?s ability are at all influenced by the popularity of a child is unclear. Differences between the boys? classes relate to behaviour and it is apparent that positive perceptions of behaviour in School S are linked to popularity whereas the opposite is the case in the School A Turtles where boys who are perceived to behave less well are the most popular (Figure A10-8). Figure A10 -7 School S Year 1 & 2 boys - School context measures related to the social circle 380 It is revealed that the Year 1/2 School A boys who perceive themselves to behave relatively poorly are also more central socially. This is an indication that in this class environment the boy?s perception of his own behaviour has an impact on the social dynamic. This could be because other boys and girls admire them for their behaviour but it could also be that, if their behaviour is poor, they receive more attention from the teacher which may well be a strong factor in overall inclusion and popularity. 10.3 Year 1 and 2 belonging The identity cards study provided a measure of belonging derived from reported identification with the physical environment. As well as assessing what factors affect how socially central a child is, it is also important to look at their sense of belonging in relation to factors like perceived behaviour and expressed happiness. The discussion in the preceding chapters which asserts belonging as pivotal in a child?s well-being would indicate that it is a more influential, and global, measure than popularity. Figure A10 -8 School A Year 1 & 2 boys - School context measures related to the social circle 381 10.3.1 Gender and age There is no common pattern of belonging based on gender. Boys in School A show greater belonging than girls whereas in School S the situation is reversed. Despite this inconclusion, Year 1 boys and Year 2 girls show the highest belonging in both classes compared with Year 2 boys and Year 1 girls respectively. In these classes both Year 2 boys and Year 1 girls demonstrate particularly low belonging. Although there is, and has been since Plowden (1967), a motivation to reduce the effect of age on the way Education is organised, teachers will cite the complications of planning lessons associated with mixed age classes. The mixed age classes in both these schools, however, are primarily the result of the school size and intake. How this affects the child is not clear in the research but parents are often sceptical of the impact on their child and the ability of teachers to deliver. From being a bright happy social child I have an unhappy, lonely child who is falling behind in his work (Pearson, 2009). It would appear from this research that boys or girls of a particular age group can be affected negatively with respect to well-being in mixed age classes. The research also offers a view of how children?s belonging is composed in relation to the cultural, social and aesthetic?functional aspects of the physical school. This is illustrated below for Year 1 & 2 indicating important patterns in the way belonging is constructed. Figure A10-9 Belonging Index for School S Yr 1 & 2 girls shown for those with high, medium and low belonging broken down by cultural, aesthetic/functional and social physical aspects of school 382 Figure A10 -10 Belonging Index for School A Yr 1 & 2 girls shown for those with high, medium and low belonging broken down by cultural, aesthetic/functional and social physical aspects of school Comparing the girls in the two Year 1 and 2 classes, those with the highest belonging in School S indicate the predominance of identification with parts of the school with cultural and social significance. This pattern generally continues as belonging declines (See Figure A10-9). In School A girls with high belonging demonstrate a similar allegiance to culturally significant elements of the school. However, socially significant parts of the school become relatively more important to the child?s belonging as their belonging decreases. Elements which are more aesthetic or functional also take on greater significance for the child as their overall belonging decreases (See Figure A10-10). 383 Figure A10 -11 Belonging Index for School S Yr 1 & 2 boys shown for those with high, medium and low belonging broken down by cultural, aesthetic/functional and social physical aspects of school - Year 1 & 2 Figure A10 -12 Belonging Index for School A Yr 1 & 2 boys shown for those with high, medium and low belonging broken down by cultural, aesthetic/functional and social physical aspects of school - Year 1 & 2 In both schools boys with high belonging demonstrate positive identification with the social elements of the physical school which then is surpassed by identification with places and objects with cultural significance. Arguably this relates to the perceived importance of the adults in mediating the children?s social existence at school (See Figure A10-11 & Figure A10-12). In School A, as seen for the girls although to a lesser degree, the relative importance of the aesthetic?functional school to the boys? belonging increases as their overall belonging decreases. 384 10.3.2 Belonging and social position Belonging in relation to a child?s social position is logically worth investigation to ascertain the relationship and dependency between the two. Figure A10 -13 Belonging Index compared with social position In Figure A10-13, girls? belonging is shown to be more aligned to their popularity at both schools compared with the boys. It is most clear for the Pandas where high belonging is strongly associated with the central circle. In School A it is less clear centrally but low belonging is associated with being on the outer social circle. For boys the relationship appears to be connected either positively or negatively to the social middle. In School S, belonging in the social middle is much greater than the rest of the social circle whereas in School A, it is lowest. The lowest belonging at School S is found in the outer circle which is consistent with the importance of the children?s social context raised in previous chapters. 385 10.3.3 Behaviour In relation to popularity, the classes differ considerably in the way they perceive their own behaviour, yet it is notable that the highest perceptions of behaviour occur in the outer social circle for boys and girls. Figure A10 -14 Belonging Index in relation to a child's perceived behaviour (High, medium or low) - Year 1 & 2 Considering belonging in relation to a child?s perceived behaviour indicates that the boys? belonging at School S declines with lower perceptions of their own behaviour. School A boys demonstrate the opposite. It is of note that none of the School A girls perceive themselves to behave very well and belonging falls slightly as perceptions get worse. At School S it is noticeable that girls who perceived themselves to be of medium behaviour had the greatest sense of belonging. Figure A10-14 illustrates the pattern of this relationship. At School S boys who viewed their behaviour as medium were noticeably oriented to the physical elements of school with social significance whereas the boys with low perceived behaviour and high belonging were most aligned to elements of cultural importance. 386 Figure A10 -15 Belonging Index in relation to a teacher's perception of the child's behaviour (High, medium or low) - Year 1 & 2 When the teacher?s perception of the child?s behaviour is considered certain patterns can be seen in across both classes. For boys and girls, belonging is average or higher for those whom the teacher considers to behave well. Boys, in particular illustrate lower belonging if their behaviour is considered medium; cross referencing this, the same group of boys at School A shows noticeably less connection with social aspects of the physical school as indicated in Figure A10-16. Boys illustrate high belonging again if their behaviour is considered to be relatively poor. This is feasibly indicative of a need for attention, in which poor and good behaviour receive the teacher?s attention whereas average behaviour does not warrant it. Perversely behaviour may be adapted to either extreme to manipulate attention and enhance a sense of belonging. The results suggest that it this more important to the boys. 387 Figure A10 -16 Belonging Index for School A boys considered by the teacher to be of High, Medium or Low behaviour broken down by cultural, aesthetic/functional and social physical aspects of school - Year 1 & 2 10.3.4 Reported happiness In both classes the Year 1 & 2 boys who express the greatest happiness in formal learning situations show the greatest belonging, with some noticeably steep declines as expressed happiness declines. The situation is more marked in School S, which is illustrated in Figure A10-17. Figure A10 -17 Belonging Index in relation to expressed happiness learning (High, medium or low) - Year 1 & 2 388 Conversely girls in both schools demonstrate that belonging is greater if their expressed happiness learning is low suggesting that, at this age, learning appears to be less significant in a girls? overall well-being. Throughout the research process, a number of children expressed strong disaffection with learning. Kieren?s negativity stemmed from his perception that he was behind others in his progress. Significantly his words came across as something that he had been told: I write like a 2 year old .... and I?m nearly seven. Happiness around school offered similar results although these were not as pronounced as happiness learning . 10.3.5 Ability and ability group In both classes, boys who believe they are most able have the highest sense of belonging although, demonstrating a mismatch between the two measures, boys belonging increases the lower the teacher perceives their ability to be. Additionally in both schools also, the boys who perceive their ability to be high illustrate a strong inclination to the physical elements of the school which are social in nature. Girls? belonging however, on the whole, appears to be resilient to their academic self-concept although girls whom the teacher perceives to be of high ability, in both classes, have the lowest belonging. Despite this lack of clarity, girls at School A illustrate a definite pattern in which belonging is greatest the higher their ability group is. The relationship for girls at School S is less obvious but belonging is least in the lowest ability group. This is shown in Figure A10-18. Figure A10 -18 Girl?? ?elonging I dex associated with High, Medium and Low ability groups - School A and School S Year 1&2 389 10.3.6 Year 1 and 2: Review This discussion of the findings has revealed that there are several common features between the two Year 1 & 2 classes. There is evidence that two relatively distinct circles exist in each class, founded on gender and, overall, girls are more socially discriminating than boys. Although there are contradictions in the results, there are clear distinctions between the responses of children in defined groups like age, gender and ability groups. A balance appears to be formed which reflects groupings of age (year group) and gender. In School A, girls? popularity appears to relate to their positive relationship with aspects of learning and perceptions of behaviour which contrasts with the boys for whom popularity relates to lower academic and behavioural self-concepts. In School S the reverse is true. This indicates a reactive social system which is based on clearly defined organisational groupings in the school. In both schools girls? belonging is related to their social position and, on the whole, as girls? belonging declines at School A, a shift from positive identification with cultural features to features of school with social significance is detected. For School S a balance between cultural, social and aesthetic/functional elements is maintained as belonging falls. The School A boys on the other hand demonstrate a shift from social to the aesthetic/functional features as their belonging falls whereas in School S the boys indicate a shift to cultural elements. It is possible that such shifts to the cultural school relate to children?s dependence on adults as mediators of their social interactions. There is also an indication at this age that boys? relationships with behavioural and academic concerns are linked to attention from the teacher. In the School A Turtles, which is observed to be operated by the teacher as a determinedly inclusive class, the boys with the greatest belonging are those who perceive their behaviour to be poorest. In the School S Pandas the opposite is the case and, through observation, the class culture towards inclusion was also opposite. Additionally it is apparent that the class is more socially intense than in School A, both in terms of the size of the social circle and the relationships which exist. This seemingly is connected to the degree of social intervention the teacher exerts but also to the children?s community backgrounds. 390 Appendix 11: Recognition and understanding results Figure A11-1 Observation and recognition percentage across the social circle - Year 1 & 2 Figure A11-2 Observation and recognition percentage across the social circle - Year 5 & 6 391 Figure A11-3 Belonging Index by High, medium and low recognition and understanding - Year 1 & 2 Fig ure A11-4 Belonging Index by High, medium and low recognition and understanding - Year 5 & 6