0 
 
The international volunteer experience in South Africa: 
an investigation into the impact on the tourist 
 
 
 
 
 
A Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 
 
By 
 
Zo? Alexander 
 
Faculty of Design, Media and Management 
School of Travel and Aviation 
Buckinghamshire New University  
Brunel University 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
April 2012  
This copy of the thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it is understood to 
recognise that its copyright rests with its author under the terms of the United Kingdom Copyright 
Acts. No quotation from the thesis and no information derived from it may be published without 
proper acknowledgement.  
i 
 
ABSTRACT 
 
 
This thesis explores the impact of volunteer tourism on the international tourist 
engaging in volunteer work in South Africa. A staged methodological design is 
adopted in this research. The first stage provides conceptual clarification of the 
term volunteer tourism, using grounded theory. Then a quasi-experimental study 
was carried out to collect data from volunteer tourists undertaking community and 
wildlife (including conservation) projects in South Africa. It consists of a 
standardised web-based personality inventory (IPIP-NEO) completed prior to, 
post, and one to two years following the volunteer vacation to measure personality 
changes in 15 core traits. A control group was used to enhance the validity of the 
scientific method. Thereafter, personal interviews were conducted to gain insight 
into the volunteering experience and any resulting changes in the volunteers? day-
 to-day lives.  
 
This study?s findings point to significant changes in seven traits; some of these 
traits have not been previously identified by the literature and therefore broaden 
our understanding of the impact on the tourist. Additionally, while confirming some 
of the changes found in other studies, the findings of this study also point to some 
significant contrasts. Many of the changes identified were evident in the 
volunteer?s daily lives through their ?personal circumstances?, ?behaviour?, 
?emotions?, ?confidence?, ?values?, ?knowledge or skills? and ?attitudes?. The 
experiences which the volunteers attributed to their changes were: active, 
involved, responsible, participatory, immersive and interactive, and whether they 
met volunteers? expectations; influenced by: age, gender, project type and length 
of stay. 
 
The findings address a number of shortcomings in the volunteer tourism literature 
by providing statistical evidence of change; a better understanding of how change 
appears in participants? everyday lives; and identifies some additional elements 
that influence change in the visitor, adding to knowledge of Engagement Theory. 
These findings can therefore contribute theoretically; and practically to tourism 
marketing, program design and volunteer satisfaction. 
  
ii 
 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
 
 
Many people have enabled this research by either participating as volunteers or 
providing links to volunteers, especially Ed Scott at Aviva, the director of the 
volunteer tourism provider in South Africa, who made this research possible. I 
would specifically like to express my gratitude to them all for taking part. 
 
I must also thank my husband, Andy, for offering helpful comments on my initial 
draft and my supervisor, Dr Ali Bakir, for introducing me to grounded theory and 
providing the space to find my own common sense approach to the theory yet 
always keeping me on track, a true supervisor. I would also like to thank my 
second supervisor, Dr Eugenia Wickens, for her infectious enthusiasm of the 
subject, introducing me to the conference world, sharing her valuable experience 
and offering me so many constructive comments. 
 
I owe gratitude to Professor Charles Malcolm, previously Head of Psychology, at 
the University of the Western Cape, South Africa. His advice on methodology and 
approaches to studying the self, have been incorporated into this research.   
 
Lastly, thank you to my family and friends who have endured many years of 
?volunteer tourism? and a very big thank you to my mom Stefanie Taylor who spent 
many hours reviewing my grammar. 
iii 
 
AUTHOR?S DECLARATION 
 
 
I hereby declare that this thesis has been composed by myself and has not been 
presented or accepted in any previous application for a degree. The work, of which 
this is a record, has been carried out by myself unless otherwise stated and the 
work is mine, it reflects personal views and values. All quotations have been 
distinguished by quotation marks and all sources of information have been 
acknowledged by means of references, including those of the Internet. 
  
iv 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 
 
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................. i 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................ii 
AUTHOR?S DECLARATION ....................................................................................... iii 
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..............................................................................................iv 
LIST OF FIGURES .....................................................................................................ix 
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................ x 
 
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 1 
The aims of this study .......................................................................................... 3 
The organisation of this thesis ............................................................................ 5 
 
1. CHAPTER ONE - theoretical approaches: a review of the literature ................. 8 
1.1. The notion of volunteer tourism ................................................................ 8 
1.1.1. Lack of clarity over the notion of volunteer tourism ............................. 10 
1.2. Engagement Theory .................................................................................. 21 
1.3. The profile of volunteer tourists .............................................................. 22 
1.4. The impact of volunteering on the tourist/volunteer ............................. 27 
1.4.1. Impact of tourism on the visitor .............................................................. 27 
1.4.2. Impact of international volunteering on the volunteer .......................... 29 
1.4.3. Impact of domestic volunteering on the volunteer ................................ 31 
1.4.4. Impact of international volunteer tourism on the visitor ....................... 33 
1.5. Motivation to volunteer abroad ................................................................ 42 
1.6. Conclusion of this chapter ....................................................................... 47 
 
2. CHAPTER TWO - the context: volunteer tourism in South Africa ................... 48 
2.1. Responsible tourism in South Africa ...................................................... 48 
2.2. Tourism in South Africa ........................................................................... 50 
2.3. Conclusion of this chapter ....................................................................... 52 
 
3. CHAPTER THREE - theoretical approaches: the tourist (self) ........................ 53 
3.1. The international tourist ........................................................................... 53 
3.2. Theoretical and methodological approaches to studying the tourist .. 54 
v 
 
3.2.1. Experimentalist perspective .................................................................... 54 
3.2.2. Social constructionist perspective.......................................................... 57 
3.2.3. Experiential perspective ........................................................................... 58 
3.2.4. Positive psychology ................................................................................. 60 
3.2.5. Post-modern perspective ......................................................................... 61 
3.3. Conclusion of this chapter ....................................................................... 63 
 
4. CHAPTER FOUR - methodology: approaches, issues and problems ............. 64 
4.1. The research paradigms ........................................................................... 64 
4.1.1. Positivist inquiry ....................................................................................... 66 
4.1.2. Interpretative inquiry ................................................................................ 67 
4.2. Methodological justification ..................................................................... 68 
4.3. Multiple paradigm, staged methods approach ....................................... 69 
4.4. The research design ................................................................................. 70 
4.5. The methods employed for this research: an overview ........................ 72 
4.5.1. Stage one: grounded theory .................................................................... 72 
4.5.2. Stage two: personality inventories.......................................................... 73 
4.5.3. Stage three: interpretative phenomenological analysis of interviews . 80 
4.6. Sampling theory ........................................................................................ 82 
4.6.1. The sample and issues of selectivity ...................................................... 83 
4.7. Data collection process ............................................................................ 87 
4.7.1. Stage one: grounded theory .................................................................... 87 
4.7.2. Stage two: Personality Inventory ............................................................ 89 
4.7.3. Stage three: web-based structured interviews ...................................... 91 
4.8. Data analysis ............................................................................................. 92 
4.8.1. Grounded theory: process and challenges ............................................ 92 
4.8.2. Personality Inventory: process and challenges ..................................... 94 
4.8.3. Analysis of interviews: process and challenges ................................... 96 
4.9. Validity and reliability ............................................................................... 97 
4.9.1. Internal validity/credibility ........................................................................ 99 
4.9.2. External validity/transferability .............................................................. 101 
4.9.3. Reliability/dependability ......................................................................... 102 
4.10. Reflexivity and ethics: My role ........................................................... 104 
4.11. Conclusion of this chapter .................................................................. 109 
 
vi 
 
 
5. CHAPTER FIVE - grounded theory: analysis and findings ............................ 110 
5.1. Conceptual clarification of the term volunteer tourism ....................... 110 
5.2. The concept of engagement................................................................... 113 
5.3. The concept of volunteer work .............................................................. 115 
5.4. The concept of tourist ............................................................................ 117 
5.5. Trustworthiness of the findings and the limitations of this study ...... 126 
5.6. Conclusion of this chapter ..................................................................... 126 
 
6. CHAPTER SIX - personality inventory and analysis ..................................... 128 
6.1. The context .............................................................................................. 128 
6.1.1. The volunteer tourism provider and the projects ................................ 128 
6.1.2. The participants ...................................................................................... 131 
6.2. The IPIP-NEO 60-item version personality inventory ........................... 139 
6.3. Changes in personality traits ................................................................. 141 
6.3.1. Statistical results .................................................................................... 141 
6.4. Age, gender, project type, length of stay and time elapsed post-trip 143 
6.4.1. The influence of age ............................................................................... 143 
6.4.2. The influence of gender ......................................................................... 145 
6.4.3. The influence of project type ................................................................. 147 
6.4.4. The influence of length of stay .............................................................. 149 
6.4.5. The influence of time elapsed post-trip ................................................ 154 
6.5. Conclusion of this chapter ..................................................................... 155 
 
7. CHAPTER SEVEN ? discussion of the personality inventory results ............ 157 
7.1. Discussion ............................................................................................... 157 
7.2. Some explanations of the statistical results......................................... 163 
7.2.1. Anxiety: the concept of flow .................................................................. 164 
7.2.2. Trust: increased self-confidence and giving up of control ................. 164 
7.2.3. Self Efficacy: performance experience ................................................. 165 
7.2.4. Artistic Interests: engagement .............................................................. 166 
7.2.5. Depression: social integration .............................................................. 167 
7.2.6. Assertiveness: conflict resolution and taking responsibility ............. 167 
7.2.7. Emotionality: interactional temperament model .................................. 168 
7.2.8. Altruism and Dutifulness: motivated by egoism .................................. 168 
vii 
 
7.2.9. Activity level: fitness and other self-benefits ....................................... 169 
7.2.10. Adventurousness and Vulnerability: opportunities and confidence170 
7.2.11. Intellect: cognitive stability ................................................................. 171 
7.3. The influence of age, gender, project type and length of stay ............ 172 
7.3.1. The influence of age ............................................................................... 172 
7.3.2. The influence of gender ......................................................................... 173 
7.3.3. The influence of project type ................................................................. 175 
7.3.4. The influence of length of stay .............................................................. 176 
7.4. Time elapsed post-trip ............................................................................ 178 
7.5. The limitations of this study................................................................... 180 
7.6. Conclusion of this chapter ..................................................................... 181 
 
8. CHAPTER EIGHT - interpretative phenomenological analysis of interviews 184 
8.1. The analysis............................................................................................. 184 
8.1.1. Anxiety ..................................................................................................... 190 
8.1.2. Artistic Interests ..................................................................................... 191 
8.1.3. Depression .............................................................................................. 192 
8.1.4. Assertiveness ......................................................................................... 193 
8.1.5. Emotionality ............................................................................................ 195 
8.1.6. Adventurousness ................................................................................... 196 
8.1.7. Vulnerability ............................................................................................ 197 
8.1.8. Trust ......................................................................................................... 198 
8.1.9. Activity ..................................................................................................... 199 
8.1.10. Individual deviances ........................................................................... 200 
8.2. The influence of volunteering, travel, tourism, South Africa .............. 202 
8.3. Conclusion of this chapter ..................................................................... 202 
 
9. CHAPTER NINE ? discussion of the IPA findings ......................................... 205 
9.1. Overview .................................................................................................. 205 
9.2. Experiential Engagement ....................................................................... 206 
9.3. Limitations of this stage of the study .................................................... 208 
9.4. Interpretation and conclusion ................................................................ 209 
 
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... 217 
 
viii 
 
 
APPENDICES ......................................................................................................... 245 
Appendix 1: The definitions of the thirty traits ............................................... 246 
Appendix 2: The Personality Inventory: www.bucksresearch.org.uk .......... 252 
Appendix 3: An a Priori Power Analysis ......................................................... 255 
Appendix 4: The Home Page for www.bucksresearch.org.uk ...................... 257 
Appendix 5: The Guide Page for www.bucksresearch.org.uk ...................... 258 
Appendix 6: The Questionnaire Page for www.bucksresearch.org.uk ........ 259 
Appendix 7: The text (in bold) appearing on the Aviva booking link ........... 260 
Appendix 8: The email template request for control group members ......... 261 
Appendix 9: An example of a submitted questionnaire and PI ..................... 262 
Appendix 10: An example of a volunteer tourist testimonial ........................ 265 
Appendix 11: Other sources of grounded theory data .................................. 266 
Appendix 12: A summary of a participant?s personality traits (extract) ...... 272 
Appendix 13: The note accompanying the personality inventory results ... 273 
Appendix 14: Request for completion of the second personality inventory274 
Appendix 15: A summary of a person?s personality trait changes .............. 275 
Appendix 16: Thank you note and questions relating to the changes ......... 276 
Appendix 17: Request for completion of a third personality inventory ....... 277 
Appendix 18: A summary report of the follow-up results ............................. 278 
Appendix 19: A few general questions about the volunteer?s trip ............... 280 
Appendix 20: The grounded theory coding and analysis process (extract) 281 
Appendix 21: Post-it notes reflecting the concepts of volunteer tourism ... 282 
Appendix 22: Comparison between the first and second inventory scores 283 
Appendix 23: The IPA coding and analysis process (extract) ...................... 284 
Appendix 24: The summary sheet after IPA coding (extract) ....................... 286 
Appendix 25: The summary sheet for ?impacts/changes? (extract) .............. 287 
Appendix 26: The summary sheet for ?experiences? (extract) ...................... 288 
Appendix 27: A diary extract - recording ethical issues/challenges ............ 289 
Appendix 28: The questions asked about non-completion ........................... 291 
 
PUBLICATIONS ...................................................................................................... 292 
 
  
ix 
 
LIST OF FIGURES 
 
  
Figure 1. A visual representation of the staged design. ............................................. 71 
Figure 2. The concepts relating to the category of engagement. ............................. 111 
Figure 3. The concepts relating to the category of volunteer work. .......................... 111 
Figure 4. The concepts relating to the category of tourist......................................... 112 
Figure 5. The number of participants by gender....................................................... 131 
Figure 6. The number of participants by age group. ................................................. 131 
Figure 7. The number of participants by occupation. ............................................... 133 
Figure 8. The number of participants by country of origin. ....................................... 134 
Figure 9. The pre-scores of the volunteers and control group. ................................. 138 
Figure 10. The pre- and post-scores of the control group. ....................................... 140 
Figure 11. The pre- and post-scores of the volunteers. ............................................ 142 
Figure 12. The pre- and post-scores of the volunteers ? remaining traits. ............... 143 
Figure 13. The % of the time we would expect to obtain these results, by age. ....... 145 
Figure 14. The % of the time we would expect to obtain these results, by gender. .. 147 
Figure 15. The % of the time we would expect to obtain these results, by project. .. 149 
Figure 16. The % of the time we would expect to obtain these results, stay length. . 152 
Figure 17. The post- versus follow-up scores of volunteers one to two years later. . 155 
Figure 18. A diagrammatic representation of Engagement Theory. ......................... 210 
 
 
 
  
x 
 
LIST OF TABLES 
 
 
 
Table 1. The similarities and contrasts of volunteer tourism to tourism ............................ 20 
Table 2. The profile of Aviva volunteers versus the sample and control group ................. 23 
Table 3. The similarities and contrasts between volunteer tourist typologies .................... 25 
Table 4. A summary of the experiences and other influencing factors .............................. 39 
Table 5. A summary of the impacts of volunteer tourism .................................................. 41 
Table 6. A summary of the literature on volunteer tourist motivation ................................ 45 
Table 7. The definitions of the 15 personality traits measured (summary) ........................ 76 
Table 8. The core category of engagement with its concepts and properties ................. 113 
Table 9. The category of volunteer work with its concepts and properties ...................... 116 
Table 10. The category of tourist with its concept of ?expectations? ................................ 119 
Table 11. The category of tourist with its concepts of ?assumptions? and ?issues? ........... 120 
Table 12. The category of tourist with its concept of ?motivations? .................................. 123 
Table 13. The category of tourist with its concept of ?impacts? ........................................ 124 
Table 14. The wildlife and conservation projects offered by Aviva ................................. 129 
Table 15. The children and community projects offered by Aviva ................................... 130 
Table 16. A summary of the motives of the volunteers ................................................... 132 
Table 17. The characteristics of samples of other volunteer tourism research ............... 135 
Table 18. Mann-Whitney U-test results for pre-test scores of volunteers and control ..... 138 
Table 19. Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test results for control group ............... 140 
Table 20. The impact of volunteer tourism on 15 personality traits ................................. 141 
Table 21. The differences between the pre- and post-test by trait ? age 16-29 .............. 144 
Table 22. The differences between the pre- and post-test by trait ? age 30+ ................. 144 
Table 23. The differences between the pre- and post-test by trait ? females .................. 146 
Table 24. The differences between the pre- and post-test by trait ? males .................... 146 
Table 25. The differences between the pre- and post-test scores - community .............. 148 
Table 26. The differences between the pre- and post-test scores ? wildlife.................... 148 
Table 27. The differences between the pre- and post-test scores, 1 to 4 weeks ............ 150 
Table 28. The differences between the pre- and post-test scores, 5 to 12 weeks .......... 151 
Table 29. The differences between the pre- and post-test scores, 13 to 52 weeks ........ 151 
Table 30. Summary - the % of time we would expect to obtain these results ................. 153 
Table 31. The differences between the post- and follow-up scores ................................ 154 
Table 32. Master experience categories identified from interviewing volunteers ............ 185 
Table 33. Master impact categories identified from interviewing volunteers ................... 185 
Table 34. A tabular representation of the findings .......................................................... 186 
Table 35. The factors influencing the experience ........................................................... 203 
1 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 
During the last decade, consumers, governments, destinations and volunteer 
tourism providers have all shown a growing interest in volunteer tourism and for 
different reasons. 
 
An increasing number of consumers want to experience a new kind of tourism, 
one rich in authentic culture by interacting with the ?other? as part of their tourism 
experiences (Birdwell, 2011; Mittelberg and Palgi, 2011; Zahra, 2011). 
Additionally, Millennials, those aged 18 to 29, stated clear preferences for 
experiences that are ?fun? and ?entertaining? - the tourism aspect of volunteer 
tourism ? as well as experiences that are ?participatory?, ?immersive?, ?interactive? 
and ?hands-on? (Delaware North Companies Parks and Resorts and PGAV 
Destinations, 2011); along with satisfying their altruistic desire to ?help? and to ?give 
back? (Brown, 2005; Coghlan, 2006a, 2006b; Wearing, 2001). As will be seen in 
the following literature review, these motives are complex because of individual 
differences and the numerous reasons people provide for wanting to engage in 
volunteer tourism. Nevertheless, an increasing number of consumers are showing 
an interest in this type of tourism (Benson, 2011). 
 
One such motive for participating in volunteer tourism is personal growth; 
European social policy recognises personal growth is not only driven from formal 
and informal education and training but also from the engagement in cultural and 
social experiences; and that youth work and volunteering opportunities offer young 
people the chance to develop their confidence, motivation and skills (see, for 
example, Commission on the Future of Volunteering, 2008; The Scottish 
Government, 2007). Additionally, Cheallaigh, Doets, Hake and Westerhuis (2002) 
point out that personal development can be motivating and lead to the acquisition 
of learning attitudes and skills that are essential to the workplace and vital to social 
cohesion, equality, active citizenship, cultural diversity and general well-being. 
 
Therefore governments are expressing an interest in their citizens volunteering 
abroad because of these benefits to society: encouraging good citizenship at 
home (Bailey and Russell, 2010; Machin, 2008; McGehee and Santos, 2005); 
2 
 
volunteers gain important skills such as social abilities (Harlow and Pomfret, 
2007); it builds employability (Machin, 2008; McBride, Lough and Sherraden, 
2010; Wearing, 2001); enhances well-being (McIntosh and Zahra, 2007; Van 
Willigen, 2000; Wilson and Musick, 2000); increases trust (Bailey and Russell, 
2010; McIntosh and Zahra, 2007); increases self-confidence (Mittelberg and Palgi, 
2011; Wearing, 2001); increases tolerance and the ability to get on with other 
people (Bailey and Russell, 2010; Harlow and Pomfret, 2007); develops 
responsibility (Heron, 2011); and it has been found to contribute economically 
(Volunteering Development Scotland, 2009). As a result, in addition to The British 
Youth in Action programme and Lifelong Learning initiatives, the Coalition 
Government announced the creation of International Citizen Service (ICS) to ?give 
thousands of our young people, those who couldn?t otherwise afford it, the chance 
to see the world and serve others? (Birdwell, 2011:9). Similarly, the Canadian 
government inaugurated the Youth Employment Strategy to develop responsible 
and engaged global citizens (Heron, 2011).  
 
Destinations and volunteer tourism providers are also interested in volunteer 
tourism because of its potential profitability and the financial benefits gained from 
foreign exchange; volunteers often spend more and stay for longer than general 
tourists (TRAM, 2008; Govender and Rogerson 2009). Furthermore, volunteer 
tourism can offer a sustainable solution to poverty related problems, for example, 
by providing shelter. In so doing, volunteers use their knowledge, skills and will-
 power to build houses, and they contribute financially to the projects too (Stoddart 
and Rogerson, 2004). Volunteer tourism also offers opportunities to teach visitors 
about the destination and ?other? through a less commoditised form of tourism 
(Wearing and Grabowski, 2011).  
 
There are therefore apparent benefits that can be derived from volunteer tourism 
but one must also recognise that such benefits are potential and not inevitable 
impacts of volunteer tourism. In fact, volunteer tourism has the potential to 
produce negative impacts on the individuals and communities involved (Guttentag, 
2009). As a consequence, there is a growing interest in the negative impacts of 
volunteer tourism, such as, the exploitation of local people, using volunteers rather 
than paid local labour, and the loss of traditional culture and values (Guttentag, 
2011; Simpson, 2004). These negative impacts highlight the importance of service 
3 
 
programmes being demand-led by the needs of the communities abroad, with 
careful selection of activities that are appropriate to the target group but which also 
provide community benefits (Birdwell, 2011; Wearing and Grabowski, 2011). The 
following section outlines the aims of this study within the context of this growing 
interest in volunteer tourism. 
 
The aims of this study 
The aims of this study are to investigate whether international volunteer tourism 
changes participants undertaking community and wildlife (including conservation) 
projects through the Aviva organisation in South Africa. Initially this will involve 
providing conceptual clarification of volunteer tourism because, as will be seen 
from the following literature review, there is no universal definition of the term and 
there is a multiplicity of allied notions with similar themes, such as, eco-, 
sustainable, participatory and responsible tourism, to name just a few. In order to 
provide a better understanding of volunteer tourism, a grounded theory study will 
be carried out to provide a new definition of volunteer tourism. This method is 
popular for generating new theory (Allan, 2003; Bakir and Bakir, 2006; Dick, 2005; 
Patton, 1990). Primary data were collected from 109 web-based questionnaires 
supplemented by secondary data from the other sources, such as, testimonials 
from volunteer tourists, academic and other literature.  
 
In addition, the study?s objectives were: 
? To broaden our understanding of the impacts of volunteer tourism by 
investigating changes to people?s personality traits ? those characteristics 
which ?tell what (a person) will do when placed in a given situation? (Cattell, 
1965:117-118). Hence, the study will contribute to the body of knowledge of 
impacts such as increased awareness of other people and environments 
(Bailey and Russell, 2010; Harlow and Pomfret, 2007; Lepp, 2008; 
McGehee and Santos, 2005; Sin, 2009; Wearing, 2001); personal 
development, such as learning about ?self? (Bailey and Russell, 2010; 
Broad, 2003; Harlow and Pomfret, 2007; Lepp, 2008; Wearing, 2001; 
Wickens, 2011); and skills to deal with challenging situations (Broad, 2003; 
Harlow and Pomfret, 2007). 
  
4 
 
? To understand the links between the impacts of volunteer tourism and age, 
gender, project type and length of stay; as the research in these areas 
tends to be limited and somewhat contradictory (Alexander, 2012; Birdwell, 
2011; Lepp, 2008). For example, Birdwell (2011) noted that younger 
volunteers were more likely than older volunteers to report personal 
development outcomes; whereas Bailey and Russell (2010) found that age 
did not influence the outcomes of their study. With regard to project type, 
Birdwell (2011), Harlow and Pomfret (2007) and Sherraden, Lough and 
McBride (2008) suggest that the type of volunteer project could influence 
the experience and therefore the impact. However, Lepp (2008) found that 
his community and wildlife volunteers benefitted from their experience in 
remarkably similar ways.  
  
? To identify whether the post-trip changes still hold one to two years later 
because there is some evidence that, as time elapses post-trip, some 
impacts could decline (see Bailey and Russell, 2010); thereby reducing the 
effectiveness of volunteer programmes in meeting some of their desired 
outcomes. Bailey and Russell found that, for the ?wisdom? trait, although 
there were significant increases between the pre-test and post-trip test 
scores, there was a 25% decline between the post-trip test and follow-up 
scores. This suggests that, for this trait, there were strong initial gains in 
measured outcomes when the participants returned home, but a decline 
thereafter. Ewert and Sibthorp (2009) comment that due to the emotional 
nature of such experiences, researchers often report strong initial gains in 
measured outcomes followed by a decline when the participants return 
home. Machin (2008) and Alexander (2012) identified this ?fading factor? as 
a gap in the literature and, therefore, an area for further research. 
 
For this study, 15 traits will be measured: anxiety, depression, vulnerability, 
assertiveness, action, artistic interests, emotionality, adventurousness, intellect, 
liberalism, trust, altruism, self-efficacy, dutifulness, and cautiousness. This will be 
done using a standardised questionnaire (the IPIP-NEO personality inventory) for 
which participants must choose a statement that best applies to them; this will help 
address the problem, noted by Lough, Moore McBride and Sherraden (2009a), 
that some volunteers have difficulty articulating the specific impacts of the 
5 
 
experience when interviewed (Alexander, 2012). For example, one international 
volunteer commented: 
 
I am who I am today because of that time. I have never looked at my life 
the same way I did before I volunteered. It changed my life in virtually 
every way. It's difficult to explain the change, but it has had a lasting 
impact (Lough et al., 2009a:33). 
 
In order to address this study?s objectives, sixty international volunteer tourists 
completed the IPIP-NEO personality inventory pre- and post-trip. An a priori power 
analysis showed that this was the number of subjects required for conducting 
Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed ranks tests on the pre- (first test) and post-test 
(second test) scores, to establish the likelihood of change for each trait.  
 
In addition, this study employed the interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) 
of 36 post-trip personal interviews. IPA attempts to explore/understand/make 
sense of the subjective meanings of events/experiences/states of the individual 
participants (Smith and Osborn, 2004); it involves the thematic analysis of the data 
to provide a better understanding of how change manifests itself in the 
participant?s everyday life at home and to understand the elements that influence 
change in the visitor. As will be seen from the following literature review, a 
noticeable weakness of the volunteer tourism impact studies is their lack of 
explanations of the experiential factors that facilitate changes in the volunteer 
(Harlow and Pomfret, 2007; Lee and Woosnam, 2010). Generally, these studies 
emphasise authentic interaction with hosts and other volunteers, working towards 
common goals and doing meaningful work and establishing networks and 
friendships (Bailey and Russell, 2010; Gecko, Bradt Travel Guides and Lasso 
Communications, 2009; Harlow and Pomfret, 2007; Lepp, 2008; McGehee and 
Santos, 2005; McIntosh and Zahra, 2007; Sin, 2009; Wearing, 2001; Wickens, 
2011). So, there is an opportunity, in this study, to investigate these factors further.  
 
The organisation of this thesis 
This thesis is divided into nine chapters. Chapter one explores the academic 
literature on volunteer tourism. It examines the various definitions of volunteer 
tourism and highlights the rationale for providing conceptual clarification of the 
6 
 
term. Thereafter, it describes the general profile of volunteer tourists and reviews 
the current literature on the impact of tourism and volunteering on the visitor; 
identifies the factors that influence these impacts; and reviews the motives of 
volunteers in order to gain insight into the facets each brings to the experience.  
 
Chapter two reviews volunteer tourism in South Africa, recognising the potential of 
volunteer tourism for that country. Chapter three explores the literature on the self 
as a tourist. It defines the tourist and explores the many different angles from 
which the tourist can be studied, including the angle adopted for this study. These 
angles range from ?self? as the driving force behind change, as with the 
experimentalist, experiential and positive psychology approaches, to ?environment? 
and contextual influences using a more social constructionist or post-modernism 
approach to studying the self.  
 
Chapter four explores the methodological approaches of different research 
paradigms and explains in greater detail how the researcher went about designing 
and implementing the methodology for this study. In this study, it was necessary to 
draw from different discourses at different points in the research process. The 
multi-paradigm research strategy, using staged methods approach, is discussed in 
this chapter. The approach involves using grounded theory method for 
understanding what volunteer tourism is and generating a new explanation of 
volunteer tourism. Thereafter, personality tests focus on the quantitative 
measurement of change following a volunteer tourism experience; supplemented 
by the interpretive phenomenological analysis of interviews offering explanations 
for the change, and how change is manifested in people?s everyday lives at home. 
The sample itself is discussed as well as issues of selectivity, validity and reliability 
of the research; reflexivity in the research process; and associated ethical 
considerations and dilemmas.   
 
Chapter five ? the grounded theory findings - provides an explanation of volunteer 
tourism using grounded theory to clarify the conceptual components of volunteer 
tourism and to provide a more in-depth understanding of it before investigating its 
impact on the tourist in chapter six. 
 
7 
 
Chapter six ? the personality inventory results ? describes the context of the 
volunteer tourism experience for those Aviva volunteers participating in projects in 
South Africa. Thereafter, it describes this study?s participants and later determines 
the changes in these participants as a result of their volunteering experience; it 
additionally examines the influence of age, gender, project type, length of stay, 
and time elapsed post-trip on the experience.  
 
Chapter seven discusses the personality inventory results, highlights the study?s 
similarities to other studies, and offers explanations for findings which differ from 
these studies. Some relevant theoretical concepts will be discussed to explain the 
personality results of the sample, these include: flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990); 
self-confidence (Maslow, 1993; Carver and Scheier, 2005); performance 
experience (Bandura, 1997); social integration (Chambre, 1987; Stevens-
 Ratchford, 2005; Wilson and Musick, 2000); and others. Some implications of 
these changes will also be highlighted and so will the limitations of this part of the 
study. 
 
In order to broaden our understanding of the changes identified amongst this 
study?s volunteer tourists, chapter eight analyses the reported causes and 
consequences of those changes, from the volunteers? perspective, using 
interpretative phenomenological analysis.  
 
Chapter nine embeds the IPA findings within the notion of experiential 
engagement in an attempt to explain transformation in the volunteers, and points 
to the limitations of this part of the study. Finally, there is synthesis of all three 
stages of the research and their contribution to knowledge. The concluding section 
discusses the validity and reliability of the study and includes some thoughts and 
pointers for further research, followed by a list of references, appendices and 
publications. 
8 
 
1. CHAPTER ONE - theoretical approaches: a review of the 
literature  
 
 
Chapter one explores the literature on volunteer tourism. It examines the various 
definitions of volunteer tourism and highlights the rationale for providing 
conceptual clarification of the term. Thereafter, it describes the general profile of 
volunteer tourists and reviews the current literature on the impact of tourism and 
volunteering on the visitor; identifies the factors that influence these impacts; and 
reviews the motives of volunteers in order to gain insight into the facets each 
brings to the experience.  
 
1.1. The notion of volunteer tourism 
The tourism literature does not offer a universal definition of volunteer tourism. The 
volunteer tourism industry often uses the term ?voluntourism? and quotes David 
Clemmons (2009) of Los Ni?os and http://www.voluntourism.org as ?the conscious, 
seamlessly integrated combination of voluntary service to a destination and the 
best, traditional elements of travel ? arts, culture, geography, history and 
recreation ? in that destination?. The term ?voluntourism? recently appeared in the 
Word English Dictionary (2009) as ?tourism in which travellers do voluntary work to 
help communities or the environment in the places they are visiting?. Academics, 
on the other hand, use the term ?volunteer tourism? and most commonly use 
Stephen Wearing?s (2001:1) definition of volunteer tourists as those who ?volunteer 
in an organized way to undertake holidays that may involve the aiding or 
alleviating of the material poverty of some groups of society, the restoration of 
certain environments, or research into aspects of society or environment.?   
 
Generally, these definitions recognise the combination of two concepts: tourism1 
and volunteering2 at the destination visited (Billington, Carter and Kayamba, 2008; 
                                                 
1 Tourism: Both World Trade Organization (WTO) and United Nations Statistics Division, 1994, define the 
concept as ?The activities of persons travelling to and staying in places outside their usual 
environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes? 
(Cooper, Fletcher, Gilbert and Wanhill, 2005:13).Technical definitions also include a minimum stay 
of 24 hours (an overnight stay) and ?outside usual environment? is defined as the WTO 
recommended 160 kilometres or more. Tourism is said to be ?international? when ?people visit 
destinations outside their own country?s boundaries? (ibid., 2005:794). 
 
2 Volunteering: The definition of volunteering used by Volunteering England (2008) is, any activity which 
involves spending time, unpaid, doing something which aims to benefit the environment or someone 
9 
 
Wearing, 2001). However, the tourism component is bedevilled by conceptual 
weakness and fuzziness (Cooper et al., 2005) owing to its very broad nature and 
the expanding spread of activities it covers, including volunteering (Gilbert, 1990). 
Similarly, there is no universal definition for volunteering (Volunteering England, 
2008). The word is used by different people and different sectors to mean different 
things. For instance, government schemes whereby people have to work for 
charities in return for benefits are sometimes described as 'voluntary' but many 
people would argue that since people taking part have to do the work in return for 
benefits they are not 'volunteers'. Equally many people work unpaid in order to 
gain experience in very competitive areas like television but most people would not 
describe them as ?volunteers? (Volunteering England, 2008).   
 
Lee and Woosnam (2010) and Reed (2009) point out that the definitions of 
volunteer tourism are too limiting and tell the reader very little about the 
phenomenon; they do not elaborate the activities undertaken, purpose for travel, 
time frame involved, interaction with residents, and its potential impacts on the 
visitor (see Callanan and Thomas, 2005; McIntosh and Zahra, 2008; Wearing, 
2001). David Brooks of Winconsin University offers further insight, ?Volunteer 
tourism is something that changes the way we see the world and it changes the 
way the world sees us; it really does work both ways. So, again, there may not be 
one word beyond Volun-Tourism that describes it but there certainly are 
references to experience, firsthand personal experience, where tourism, travel, 
service and learning all fit together in a way that is seamless? (in Miedema, 2010, 
p. 1). Academics are, therefore, still feeling their way in defining the term and the 
phenomenon (McGehee, in Sookhan, 2009); this is exacerbated by its broad 
nature and by the myriad of terms it is associated with, such as, ecotourism 
(Cousins, Evans and Sadler, 2009; Gray and Campbell, 2007; Tomazos and 
Butler, 2009; Wearing, 2001), sustainable tourism (Richards and Wilson, 2006; 
Wearing, 2001), participatory travel (Billington et al., 2008; Wearing, 2001), 
international volunteering (Benson, 2004; Simpson, 2007; Tourism Concern, 
2009), charity tourism (Callanan and Thomas, 2005; Wearing, 2001), niche 
tourism (Philbrook, 2007; Xola Consulting, 2009), alternative tourism (Cousins et 
                                                                                                                                                    
(individuals or groups) other than, or in addition to, close relatives. Central to this definition is the 
fact that volunteering must be a choice freely made by each individual. This can include formal 
activity undertaken through public, private and voluntary organisations as well as informal 
community participation. 
 
10 
 
al., 2009; Mustonen, 2006; Stoddart and Rogerson, 2004; Wearing, 2001, 2003, 
2005; Zahra and McIntosh, 2007), adventure tourism (Stoddart and Rogerson, 
2004; Wearing, 2001), responsible tourism (Benson, 2008, Davidson, 1998; 
Wearing, 2001), philanthropic travel (Elevate Destinations, 2008), cultural tourism 
(Brown, 2005; Coghlan, 2006a; Klicek, 2005; McIntosh and Zahra, 2007; Taylor, 
2001) and experiential tourism (Brown, 2005; Wearing, 2001).  
 
1.1.1. Lack of clarity over the notion of volunteer tourism 
A review of the literature on volunteer tourism reveals a form of tourism that 
encompasses sustainability, empowerment, local development, community 
participation, environment conservation and cross-cultural exchange to name just 
a few. There is a multiplicity of allied notions that contribute to the lack of clarity 
over our understanding of what volunteer tourism is. Analysis of the literature 
suggests that this lack of clarity is attributed to the fact that some themes are 
found in common between volunteer tourism and those allied notions; elaborated 
below. 
 
Like volunteer tourism, ecotourism is a global, fast growing, special interest market 
(Porritt, 1995; Theobald, 1994) and a participatory rather than ?gaze? experience 
(Smith, 2006). Although ecotourism, itself, has been defined in many ambiguous 
ways (Croall, 1995; Holden, 2005; Wheeller, 1993), nevertheless, the term is 
generally used to describe tourism activities that are conducted in harmony with 
nature (Hawkins, 1994). This is emphasised by The Ecotourism Society?s (1992) 
definition of the concept as: ?purposeful travel to natural areas to understand the 
cultural and natural history of the environment, taking care not to alter the integrity 
of the ecosystem, while producing economic opportunities that make conservation 
of natural activities financially beneficial to local citizens?. Wearing (2001) 
acknowledges that volunteer tourism may overlap significantly with ecotourism as 
a number of organisations, for example Track of the Tiger and its non-profit arm 
VWB in northern Thailand, use volunteer labour to develop a sustainable 
ecotourism industry. There is ample evidence pointing to the overlap of the two 
notions, for example, Gray and Campbell (2007), Clifton and Benson (2006), 
Tomazos and Butler (2009) and Cousins et al. (2009). These studies show that 
volunteer tourism is perceived to overlap with ecotourism when the tourist 
experiences are environmentally sustainable, contribute to the local community 
11 
 
and involve local people. While Butler (1992) and Whelan (1991) view ecotourism 
as a philosophy for its participants, Wearing (2001), on the other hand, sees 
volunteer tourism as a philosophy of appreciating natural areas and traditional 
cultures ?treading lightly? as he would describe it. Nevertheless, Tomazos and 
Butler (2009) consider ecotourism to have broadened its market and appeal, 
becoming more commercialised and, as a result, has lost its distinct philosophy 
that characterised its initial form. In contrast, Gray and Campbell (2007) describe 
volunteer tourism as an ?ideal? form of decommodified ecotourism because of its 
less commercialised nature. However, as volunteer tourism becomes increasingly 
diverse, Tomazos and Butler (2009) warn of the risk of volunteer tourism following 
the same path as ecotourism.   
 
Volunteer tourism also offers a sustainable form of tourism when it is accompanied 
by thoughtful policy-making and planning (Billington et al., 2008; Wearing, 2001). 
As such, it is being used as a development tool for poverty reduction in a quest to 
meet the United Nations Millennium Development Goals in developing countries in 
Africa, Asia and Central and South America (Kennedy, 2009). Similarly, 
sustainable tourism involves management of all resources in such a way that can 
fulfil economic, social and aesthetic needs while maintaining cultural integrity, 
essential ecological processes, biological diversity and life support systems 
(Croall, 1995; Globe ?90?, 1991; Holden, 2005; Sustainable Travel International, 
2007). The Bruntland Report puts it simply as meeting the needs of the present 
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs 
(World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987). Tourism 
researchers and others believe that the focus moved from intangible, life-enriching 
experiences for the tourist, to trying to improve the quality of life of others to 
enhance sustainability, centring tourism around the host community rather than on 
the tourist (Uysal, 2010; Jafari, 2010). Unlike volunteer tourism, which is a special 
interest market, sustainable tourism is considered as a mainstream principle. 
Although volunteer tourism appears to be a sustainable form of tourism focussed 
on improving the quality of life of others through volunteer work, it differs from 
sustainable tourism in that volunteer tourists expect a participatory authentic 
experience which is unique and meaningful (Coghlan, 2006a; McGehee, 2005; 
Wickens, 2011). Furthermore, volunteer tourists travel to any area that has a 
charitable cause rather than to specific sustainable biological, geographic and 
12 
 
cultural areas; and it can impact a community negatively when project planning 
and development strategies are not thought out properly (Billington et al., 2008). 
 
Volunteer tourism is linked to responsible tourism because of its potential to 
positively impact the physical environment and the inhabitants of the destination 
(Davidson, 1998) and because of the potential mutual benefits experienced by the 
traveller, who can gain much in terms of fulfilment, education, respect and 
discovery (Wearing, 2001). Although the definition of responsible tourism is the 
subject of much debate (Croall, 1995),  a common basis for it was declared and 
signed by delegates at the Cape Town Conference on Responsible Tourism in 
Destinations (2002); the declaration identified the concept of responsible tourism 
as having certain characteristics3. Many of these characteristics can be found in 
volunteer tourism and evidence of this appears in the commendations awarded to 
providers for delivering meaningful and responsible volunteer tourism experiences 
for travellers and communities alike. For example, Voluntours South Africa was 
awarded two commendations in 2008, one from the 2008 Virgin Holidays 
Responsible Tourism Awards and the other from the 2008 Imvelo Awards for 
Responsible Tourism in Johannesburg. However, it should be noted that not all 
volunteer tourism operators are responsible and there is concern over the 
commercial operators of volunteer tourism and their practices and the extent to 
which the project benefits the host community as well as the volunteer tourist 
(Benson, 2008). This has prompted research into other areas such as its impact 
on children (Richter and Norman, 2010), communities and their environments 
(refer to McGehee, 2005; McGehee and Santos, 2005; McIntosh and Zahra, 2007; 
Pezzullo, 2007; Wearing and Lee, 2008) as well as providers (refer to Cousins et 
al., 2009) and volunteer tourists (refer to Grabowski, Wearing and Lee, 2008; 
Taillon and Jamal, 2008; Wearing, 2001).   
 
Volunteer tourism is considered a niche tourism segment and the eJournal of 
Niche Tourism Research (2005) describes niche tourism as one of the fastest 
                                                 
3 The characteristics of responsible tourism: minimising negative economic, environmental, and social 
impacts; generating greater economic benefits for local people and enhancing the wellbeing of host 
communities; improving working conditions and access to the industry; involving local people in 
decisions that affect their lives and life chances; making positive contributions to the conservation of 
natural and cultural heritage, to the maintenance of the world?s diversity; providing more enjoyable 
experiences for tourists through more meaningful connections with local people and a greater 
understanding of local cultural, social and environmental issues; providing access for physically 
challenged people and being culturally sensitive, engenders respect between tourists and locals and 
builds local pride and confidence. 
13 
 
growing sectors of the tourism industry. Volunteer tourism has been viewed as a 
type of niche tourism because it is a 'counter-point' to the more traditional and 
homogenous mass tourism products (Philbrook, 2007). It is special interest 
tourism that involves ?the provision of customised leisure and recreational 
experiences driven by the specific expressed interests of individuals and groups? 
(Derret, 2001:3). However, special interest tourism is not exclusively associated 
with volunteer tourism because niche tourism products extend beyond volunteer 
projects to other groups of products ?that in themselves are a motivating lure for 
travelers and are defined by experience? (Tourism Western Australia, 2008). 
Examples of these include nature-based products such as visiting, photographing 
and learning about orang-utans in Borneo as well as wine and food tourism such 
as tours of Italian cuisine.    
 
Volunteer tourism is conceptualised as adventure tourism because it involves 
uncertain experiences; participants expect the unexpected and to step outside 
their comfort zone (Wearing, 2001). According to the Adventure Travel Trade 
Association (2008), volunteer tourism qualifies as adventure tourism because it 
involves two or three of the following concepts: a physical activity; a cultural 
exchange or interaction; and an engagement with nature. In this respect, Stoddart 
and Rogerson (2004) place volunteer tourism in the same cluster of activities as 
adventure tourism but within the broader definition of alternative tourism.   
 
Volunteer tourism is conceptualised as a form of alternative tourism (Mustonen, 
2006; Stoddart and Rogerson, 2004; Wearing, 2001; 2003) because of its move 
away from mass packaged forms of tourism towards less conventional and more 
participatory approaches to tourism development (Krippendorf, 1987; Mowforth 
and Munt, 2003; Wearing, 2005). Brohman (1996:63) argues that ?the concept of 
alternative tourism has emerged as one of the most widely used (and abused) 
phrases in the tourism literature?. While there is no universal agreement on the 
definition of alternative tourism (Brown, 1998), the key distinguishing features of 
this new tourism are a shift to smaller or individual group travel, a move from 
packaged experiences to unpackaged or more flexible travel and a search for 
more real, natural and authentic4 forms of tourism or travel experiences (Mowforth 
                                                 
4
  Authenticity is a concept debated by tourism researchers (see Boorstin, 1961; Cohen, 1988; Dann, 1981; 
MacCannell, 1989). Authenticity in volunteer tourism arises from the nature of the interactions 
between hosts and guests through their volunteer work (Wearing, 2001; McIntosh and Zahra, 2007). 
14 
 
and Munt, 2003). Cater (1993:85) adds that ?alternative tourism activities are likely 
to be small scale, locally owned with consequentially low impact and leakages and 
a high proportion of profits retained locally?, and Wearing (2001) emphasises the 
social interaction and exchange, in volunteer tourism, between the participants 
and representatives of the community, group and natural environment which is not 
found in mass tourism. Wearing (2005) highlighted further differences from mass 
tourism such as its de-commoditisation and the placing of social objectives and 
human rights such as the right to work or to a decent standard of living over that of 
economic value. Therefore, its ideology is different from mass tourism in that it 
represents ?travel to assist? rather than ?travel to take?. It has been positioned as 
the antithesis of mass tourism and all of the problems frequently associated with 
mass tourism (Guttentag, 2011). Wearing (2001; 2005) therefore suggests 
volunteer tourism as an alternative direction to mass tourism because it can move 
beyond the commoditised process and provide a sustainable form of tourism as 
long as the tourism infrastructure is sensitively developed; there is supply-led 
marketing versus demand-led; carrying capacities are established and monitored; 
and tourists and operators are environmentally sensitive. ?As an alternative form of 
tourism, it therefore exists in fundamental opposition [to conventional mass 
tourism] by attempting to minimise the perceived negative environmental and 
socio-cultural impacts? (Wearing, 2001:28). As a result, volunteer tourism is 
essentially small-scale, low density, dispersed in non-urban areas and caters to 
special interest groups of people with mainly above-average education and with 
good incomes (Wearing, 2001). Young (2008) noted further differences from mass 
tourism in that alternative tourists attempt to put as much distance between 
themselves and other tourists by trying to establish more contact with the local 
population, without reliance on a tourist infrastructure and utilising the same 
accommodation and transport facilities as the local people.  
 
In this respect, the birth of volunteer tourism, in what O? Donnell (2003) describes 
as consumer-orientated post modernity, is more aligned to pre-modern tourism, 
such as traditional pilgrimage (Mustonen, 2006). But, whereas traditional pilgrims 
sought enlightenment, volunteer tourists search to fulfil altruistic motives. Both 
Wearing (2005) and Zahra and McIntosh (2007) agree that the young are actively 
seeking these alternative experiences and therefore have the potential to shape 
future tourist consumption reflecting the prevailing times; of products becoming 
15 
 
experiences which engage and change the consumer (Pine and Gilmore, 1999). 
However, Cousins et al. (2009) stress that volunteer tourism may not remain an 
alternative form of tourism indefinitely and that it may need to be tempered by 
future regulation. Already, a considerable segment ?of organisations are clearly 
involved in such activities on a profit-making basis and view volunteer tourism as 
one more form of tourism to be commercially exploited? (Tomazos and Butler, 
2008:2). Nevertheless, volunteer tourism, in Africa for example, can have positive 
socio-economic benefits and ?can add to the tourism development objectives of 
African countries by increasing length of stay, improving spatial distribution of the 
tourism economy and reducing seasonality of tourist flows? (Govender and 
Rogerson, 2009:16). So, as an alternative form of tourism, ?volunteer tourism has 
the potential to provide funding for development projects and to address issues 
such as skills shortages in certain sectors such as education? (ibid., p.16).  
 
Volunteer tourism is associated with charity5 because it can involve ?the aiding or 
alleviating of the material poverty of some groups of society, the restoration of 
certain environments, or research into aspects of society or environment? 
(Wearing, 2001). Callanan and Thomas (2005) link volunteer tourism to charity 
tourism owing to tourists working on local charity projects with local groups. 
However, unlike volunteer tourism, charity tourism does not necessarily involve 
volunteer work or direct contact with the projects. For example, Malawi Tourism 
(http://www.malawitourism.com/) considers its wilderness safaris as charity 
tourism, their proceeds go to charities such as ?Children in the Wilderness?, helping 
children orphaned by HIV/Aids. In volunteer tourism, the tourists would participate 
in the projects themselves rather than contribute by means of payments for 
tourism activities. For example, Caribbean Charity Tourism 
(www.onecaribbean.org) is more akin to volunteer tourism because the 
participants are in direct contact with the projects by ?taking trips to assist host 
communities by providing services that help in everyday life or aid to disaster 
areas?.  
                                                 
5 Charity, as defined by the Charity Commission (2008), is ?the prevention or relief of poverty; the 
advancement of education, religion, health or the saving of lives, citizenship or community 
development, the arts, culture, heritage or science, amateur sport, human rights, conflict resolution 
or reconciliation; the promotion of religious or racial harmony or equality and diversity; the 
advancement of environmental protection or improvement;  the relief of those in need, by reason of 
youth, age, ill-health, disability, financial hardship or other disadvantages; the advancement of 
animal welfare; the promotion of the efficiency of the armed forces of the Crown or of the police, 
fire and rescue services or ambulance services; other purposes recognised as charitable under the 
existing law and any new purposes which are similar to another prescribed purpose?. 
16 
 
 
Volunteer tourism is associated with philanthropic travel when travellers develop 
ties with their favourite destinations and look for additional ways to give back to the 
communities they visit. Like philanthropic travel, volunteer tourism introduces 
travellers to local residents and helps them understand the challenges of the 
people in the places they visit. It involves supporting and empowering local 
communities by providing such things as clean water, medical and dental facilities, 
schools, training, jobs, homes, microfinance and entrepreneurial guidance 
(Philanthropic Travel Foundation, 2008). This support for local communities, 
according to the Centre on Philanthropy at Indiana University (Kranz, 2007), can 
take the form of voluntary association, voluntary giving and voluntary action. The 
notion of giving is used in different ways by different providers and can be in the 
form of money, time or both. Elevate Destinations (2008), for example, 
differentiates the term philanthropic travel by the amount of time a traveller has 
and how the contribution is made; traveller philanthropy involves donors who are 
travelling and are short on time but invest financial capital in the project whereas 
volunteer tourists, they say, have more time and may not invest as much financial 
aid in the project. Regardless of this differentiation, volunteer tourism can lead to 
philanthropy as demonstrated by McGehee?s (2002) surveys of Earthwatch 
expedition volunteers; she found volunteer tourists made financial donations to 
organisations after their trip. This hands-on experience is becoming more 
prevalent, according to Sustainable Travel International (2007), as we pass from 
the age of cheque book philanthropy into the age of participatory philanthropy as 
with volunteer tourism. 
 
Although the term volunteer tourism became prevalent in the last decade following 
one of the most comprehensive volumes dedicated specifically to the study of 
international volunteer tourism, ?Volunteer tourism: Experiences that make a 
difference?, by Wearing (2001), the concept appears earlier in the form of 
international volunteering, from the work of the Voluntary Service Overseas (VSO) 
established in 1958 and US Peace Corps in 1961. These non-profit organisations 
organised trips for volunteers to assist communities, generally in the less 
developed world, in construction, education and conservation projects (Tomazos 
and Butler, 2008). The idea of combining voluntary service with travel can be 
traced back for many thousands of years to missionaries, healers, sailors, 
17 
 
explorers and many others who have rendered service in conjunction with their 
travels.  
 
From its recent iteration, of international volunteering with the VSO and US Peace 
Corps, it has developed into commercial tourism with a proportion of organisations 
offering projects and arranging participation for a fee (Benson, 2004; Tourism 
Research and Marketing, 2008; Wearing, 2003). This notion of ?payment? 
differentiates international volunteer tourism from international volunteering, 
although Tourism Concern (2009) say the lines are becoming increasingly blurred 
with the increase in diversity of providers, including government organisations, 
non-government organisations, charities and commercial operators. Some 
providers such as the VSO (2009) require volunteers to pay a registration fee, but 
then provide volunteers with a modest living allowance, covering expenses. 
Similarly, the American Peace Corps (2009) provides a living allowance that 
enables volunteers to live in a manner similar to the local people in their 
community; they also cover medical and dental expenses and travel as well as 
providing volunteers with $6000 post assignment towards their transition to living 
back home. However, the international charity Habitat for Humanity (2009) 
requires no fees from volunteers, nor pays volunteers. Conversely, commercial 
operators such as Aviva (2009) require volunteers to pay all their own expenses 
including travel, accommodation, a project contribution and general living.    
 
Simpson (2007) comments on other differences between international volunteering 
and international volunteer tourism suggesting that, unlike traditional international 
volunteering, volunteer tourism allows us  to go where and when we want and for 
a chosen period of time. However, these differences are fuzzy because 
international volunteering organisations, such as the VSO, offers over forty 
countries from which volunteers can choose, depending on their professional skills 
and experience. Similarly, the Peace Corps allows volunteers to state a 
geographical preference. The charity Habitat for Humanity allows volunteers to 
choose their destination before application, in common with commercial providers 
such as Aviva.  In terms of ?when? volunteers wish to go, the VSO places 
volunteers approximately six months after application and the Peace Corps nine to 
twelve months post application, whereas both Habitat for Humanity and Aviva offer 
volunteers a choice of start dates. The ?time? element also varies between 
18 
 
providers. The VSO offers assignments between three months and two years; the 
Peace Corps have a compulsory twenty-seven month assignment; Habitat for 
Humanity offers assignments between one day and unlimited time periods; and 
Aviva, periods of two weeks to three months. In this respect, other than the notion 
of payment, time periods may distinguish international volunteering from volunteer 
tourism because, strictly speaking, assignments over one year are excluded from 
tourism definitions but not volunteering. The differences highlighted by Benson 
(2004) and Simpson (2007) are complex and sometimes contradictory, 
demonstrated by the examples above. 
 
Volunteer tourism often involves cultural immersion (Brown, 2005). Similarly to 
cultural tourism, it emphasises an authentic experience; however, volunteering is 
only one interpretation of cultural tourism. The WTO (World Trade Organisation) 
defines cultural tourism as ?a movement of persons for cultural motivation such as 
study tours, performing arts and cultural tours, travel to festivals and other cultural 
events, visits to sites and monuments, travel to study nature, folklore or art and 
pilgrimages? (Mkhize, 1998:8). Similarly, both Brown?s (2005) and Coghlan?s 
(2006a) research cite cultural immersion as one of the major motivational themes 
of volunteer tourists and therefore volunteer tourism has become associated with 
cultural tourism. Additionally, Klicek (2005) argues that volunteer tourism is an 
embedded form of experience which requires active participation from both 
residents and visitors and which ultimately benefits them both. In this respect, 
McIntosh and Zahra?s (2007) study of 12 Australian volunteers undertaking 
organised volunteer activities in an indigenous Maori community in New Zealand 
found that volunteer tourists experience an alternative cultural product through 
their volunteer work; one rich in authentic cultural content, genuine and reflective 
of modern society and which is therefore a unique and a different type of cultural 
tourism because participants are engaged in a different narrative with their hosts. 
Similarly Klicek?s (2005) case study found that volunteers were less interested in 
sightseeing, than cultural tourists, and more interested in experiencing the living 
culture and everyday life of the destination. This search for cultural experiences is 
primarily argued to reflect people?s increasing recognition and reaction to the 
homogenous nature of traditional tourism products as well as their increasing 
desire for altruism, self-change and the ability to confirm their identities and 
provide coherence within an uncertain and fragmented post-modern life (Richards 
19 
 
and Wilson, 2006). Therefore, volunteer tourism provides a new ?alternative? 
cultural experience for the tourist, one based on a more engaging, meaningful and 
sincere interaction between visitor and host (Taylor, 2001). Consequently, 
communities are using volunteer tourism as a tourism strategy, to develop their 
destination in a sustainable way (Richards and Wilson, 2006; Wearing, 2001).   
 
Volunteer tourism, like experiential tourism (Smith, 2006), encourages visitors to 
actively participate in the experience and promotes activities that draw people 
outdoors and into cultures and environments. Essentially, both types of tourists 
seek memorable experiences and are looking to experience and learn rather than 
merely stand back and gaze. This notion is supported by Brown?s (2005) volunteer 
tourists who reported that they wanted to have the opportunity to see real people, 
their lives and their everyday living environment, and they attached strong value to 
seeking and experiencing the authenticity of a place and its people.  
 
An examination of the volunteer tourism literature, and specifically the similarities 
and differences between what is perceived as volunteer tourism and the 
associated forms of tourism, depicted in Table 1, suggest that volunteer tourism 
has the following package of characteristics: a) It is an emerging travel sector, a 
niche market and an alternative form of tourism; b) the providers/organisers 
generally charge more than a registration fee for their services and the tourists 
receive no remuneration for their work; c) the tourist expects to benefit from a 
unique, meaningful, participatory and authentic experience; d) it can benefit the 
tourist as well as the project or community, it can help promote sustainable 
methods of tourism and can be a responsible form of tourism taking into 
consideration concerns about the commercial operators and their practices; e) the 
activities involved may be formal, focus on volunteer work, support a charitable 
cause and where a proportion of the money received from the tourist goes to fund 
specific projects at the destination; and f) anyone can participate regardless of 
age, experience or profession.  
  
20 
 
Table 1. The similarities and contrasts of volunteer tourism to tourism 
        
 
      
 Other terms associated with volunteer tourism Assumptions underlying volunteer tourism 
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1 ? ? ? ?  ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? The tourist receives no remuneration 
2 ?     ? ?   ? ?     ? ? ? The tourist expects to benefit from a participatory authentic experience  
3 ?   ? ? ? ? ? ?   ? ? ? ? 
The tourist expects to benefit from an experience which is unique and 
meaningful 
4         ?                 The activities focus on volunteer work 
5         ? ?       ?       The activities support a charitable cause 
6 ? ? ? ?   ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Formal tourism activities are included in the trip 
7 ?   ? ? ? ? ? ? ?   ? ? ? 
It is an emerging travel sector and is considered a niche market and an 
alternative form of tourism 
8 ? ? ? ? ? ?   ? ? ? ? ? ? It can help promote sustainable methods of tourism 
9 ? ? ? ? ? ?   ? ?   ?  ? 
It benefits the personal needs of the tourist as well as the needs of the project, 
natural environment or community 
10 ? ? ? ?  ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Anyone can participate regardless of age, experience or profession 
11 ? ? ? ?  ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 
The  providers/organisers generally charge more than just a registration fee for 
their services 
12 ?   ?    ?              
A proportion of the money each tourist pays for their trip goes to fund specific 
projects at the destination 
13 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 
It can be a responsible form of tourism but there are concerns about the 
commercial operators and their practices 
 
? indicates similarity and  blank represents a contrast, unclear or not applicable 
 
 
Nevertheless, it is evident that although the above reading of the literature 
identified some main characteristics of volunteer tourism, the concept remains 
broad, ambiguous and difficult to define, not least because of its association with 
other very similar forms of tourism (Alexander and Bakir, 2011). The broad nature 
of volunteer tourism and the notion expressed by McGehee (in Sookhan, 2009) 
that academics are still feeling their way in defining the term and the phenomenon, 
has provided the researcher an opportunity to undertake an investigation to 
provide conceptual clarification of the term before its effect on the volunteer tourist 
is explored.   
  
Furthermore, these allied notions, such as, alternative and charity tourism, 
philanthropic travel and international volunteering, can involve similar activities to 
those found in volunteer tourism, such as, teaching, helping children orphaned by 
HIV/Aids, assisting host communities by providing essential services, and 
conservation work. These similar activities contribute to our lack of understanding 
of what volunteer tourism is. In volunteer tourism, ?there are a range of projects 
21 
 
available from humanitarian projects (trying to improve the conditions of life for 
people through health, education, repair, renovation, construction, sustainability) to 
conservation projects (the protection of animals, plants, land and buildings) and 
disaster mitigation? (Alexander and Bakir 2011:17). Volunteer tourism additionally 
involves tourism activities, as one volunteer pointed out: ?I want to see everything 
in Cape Town, do some extreme things like bungee jumping, sand-boarding, 
paragliding, safari? (ibid., p.18). The variety of volunteer tourism projects covered 
in this study is discussed in chapter six. Birdwell (2011), Harlow and Pomfret 
(2007), Sin (2009) and Sherraden et al. (2008) all recognise the potential influence 
of these different projects on the volunteer tourism experience; hence, there is an 
opportunity in this study to explore this further, particularly as the research in this 
area is limited and contradictory (Birdwell, 2011; Lepp, 2008). 
 
A review of the literature on volunteer tourism and its allied notions reveal a 
number of common encompassing themes, such as, ?interaction?, ?meaningful?, 
?beneficial?, ?participatory?, ?purposive?, ?active? and ?involved?. By consolidating 
these themes into a theoretical framework known as Engagement Theory, 
discussed in the following section, they can be used to explore the volunteer 
tourism experience in this study.  
 
1.2. Engagement Theory 
In volunteer tourism, the idea underlying Engagement Theory is that volunteers 
optimise their volunteer tourism experience by being meaningfully engaged in 
activities through interaction with others and doing worthwhile tasks. Alexander 
and Bakir (2011, p. 16) use the concepts of ?Relate-Dedicate-Donate? to express 
this experience. These notions are first encountered in a paper on Learning by 
Kearsley and Shneiderman (1998; 1999). However, these authors do not provide 
empirical evidence to support these notions. Volunteer tourists ?relate? and 
collaborate by interacting and integrating with other volunteers and the 
communities themselves. They ?dedicate? themselves by participating in purposeful 
work and applying their knowledge and skills to existing worthwhile projects. 
Lastly, volunteer tourists ?donate? to an outside customer, the community where 
the project is located; thus making the project authentic.  
 
22 
 
Although ?engagement? conceptualises the volunteer tourism experience, it is 
nevertheless not peculiar to volunteer tourism. The concept of ?engagement? has 
emerged informally in many disciplines: in technology-based teaching and learning 
environments to optimise student learning (Kearsley and Shneiderman, 1998; 
1999); in businesses, to increase job performance and job satisfaction (Maslach 
and Leiter, 2008); in marketing, to drive some meaningful action from the 
consumer (see Spillman, 2006); in conflict negotiation, to get disputants and 
stakeholders actively involved in a constructive non-violent process (see Coleman, 
Hacking, Stover, Fisher-Yoshida and Nowak, 2008); in tourism planning, to create 
and execute strategy (Cooper et al., 2005; Jamal, Taillon and Dredge, 2011); in 
wildlife tourism, to encourage visitors to adopt long-term environmentally 
sustainable practices (Ballantyne, Packer and Sutherland, 2011); in psychology, to 
enhance well-being (see Csikszentmihalyi, 1997); and in service-learning, to 
describe ?linkages/connections? with communities in order to facilitate student 
learning (Butin, 2010).  
 
However, Alexander and Bakir (2011) note that further research is required to 
understand the essence of engagement; so this presents an opportunity for this 
study to contribute to the small body of literature on the topic. The following 
section discusses who these volunteer tourists are. 
 
1.3. The profile of volunteer tourists 
The aim of this section is to provide some information about who these 
international volunteer tourists are. As a review of the literature will show in this 
chapter,  international volunteer tourists tend to be below the age of 35 (Harlow 
and Pomfret, 2007; Lepp, 2008; McGehee, 2002; 2005; McIntosh and Zahra, 
2007; Sin, 2009; Wearing, 2001; Zahra, 2006, 2011); mainly females (Jones, 
2004; TRAM, 2008); highly educated (Birdwell, 2011); white (Birdwell, 2011); their 
motivation extends to travelling, adventure and cultural exchange (Jones, 2004; 
Laythorpe; 2009; Lepp, 2008; Wearing, 2001; Wickens, 2009, 2011); and they 
tend to be more occasional than regular volunteers (Low, Butt, Ellis Paine and 
Davis Smiths, 2007). Evidence of this can be further found in this study?s volunteer 
profile, of the research sample, represented in Table 2. 
 
  
23 
 
Table 2. The profile of Aviva volunteers versus the sample and control group 
Characteristic Aviva population Research sample  Control group 
Size 341 (2009/2010). 60. 35. 
Gender 47 men (14%),  
294 women (86%). 
10 men (17%), 50 
women (83%). 
7 men (20%), 28 
women (80%). 
Age 269 x 16-29yrs (79%), 
72 x 30+yrs (21%). 
44 x 16-29yrs (73%), 
16 x 30+yrs (27%). 
25 x 16-29yrs (72%), 
10 x 30+yrs (28%). 
Average spend Unknown. R51000 including 
airfares. 
Not applicable. 
Average length of 
stay 
8 weeks. 10 weeks. Not applicable. 
% of time on the 
project 
Approx 65%. 59%. Not applicable. 
% of participants 
by project type 
51% children & 
community, 
46% wildlife & 
conservation, 
3% both. 
62% children and 
community, 
35% wildlife and 
conservation, 
3%   both. 
Not applicable. 
Motivation for 
participation 
Test drive future 
career with wildlife or 
children before 
committing to years of 
study, career break. 
Ranges from ?the desire 
to help others? (altruism) 
to ?getting away? and 
?travelling? (self-
 enhancement). 
Not applicable. 
Occupation Information not 
tracked. 
The largest group were 
students, professionals 
and managers (60%), 
followed by 
administrative and 
secretarial roles (7%), 
caring/leisure (7%), 
unskilled (5%), gap year 
(3%) and others. 
The largest group were 
students, professionals 
and managers (55%), 
followed by 
administrative and 
secretarial roles (23%), 
caring/leisure (3%), 
unskilled (3%) and 
others. 
Country of origin 
(%) 
UK (39%), USA 
(18%), Europe (22%), 
Australia & NZ (9%), 
Canada (8%), 
Southern Africa 
(<1%), Asia and 
South America (3%). 
UK (41%), USA (20%), 
Europe (17%), Australia 
and New Zealand (13%), 
Canada (7%) and 
Southern Africa (2%). 
United Kingdom and 
Europe (69%), South 
Africa (31%). 
  
  
24 
 
These similar socio-demographic variables and motivational themes have 
prompted a handful of researchers to create a typology of volunteer tourists (see 
Coghlan, 2006a, 2006b; Daldeniz and Hampton, 2011; Lepp, 2008; McGehee, 
Clemmons and Lee, 2009) and of volunteer tourism organisations (Coghlan, 
2007). Knowledge of these different ?types? of volunteer tourists can assist the 
design of various projects to meet the needs of diverse groups of people (Coghlan, 
2006a; 2006b; McGehee et al., 2009).  
 
Daldeniz and Hamption (2011) identified ?VOLUNtourists? and ?volunTOURISTS?, 
and classified each according to their motivation to volunteer. ?VOLUNtourists? 
travel with purpose, they work with communities in less-developed countries and 
help them to improve their environment and/or community. This group perceives 
themselves as ?local? and want to be accepted as such. In contrast, 
?volunTOURISTS? are motivated by their desire to travel and explore other parts of 
the world. They see themselves as a group of outsiders or travellers.  
 
Coghlan (2006a; 2006b), on the other hand, identified a ?mature market? and 
?young market? segment, based on their age, travel experiences and expectations. 
The ?mature market? is 50+ in age, they are experienced travellers, they expect to 
support the organisation and contribute something meaningful to the expedition by 
assisting the researcher with conservation work. In this regard, they are similar to 
?VOLUNtourists?. The ?young market? are between the ages of 18 and 24, they are 
less experienced travellers, expect novel experiences and to have some fun 
during the expedition. The ?young market? is more aligned to the 
?volunTOURISTS?.  
 
McGehee et al. (2009) further divided volunteer tourists into three clusters based 
on destination choice, lengths of stay and travel companions. The first cluster, the 
?questers?, prefer to travel to less developed economies whereas the second and 
third clusters, the ?vanguards? and ?pragmatists?, prefer developed destinations. 
Also, questers stay for longer at the destination than the other two clusters. These 
?questers? are similar to the ?VOLUNtourists? and the ?mature market? types.  
 
Lepp (2008) simply categorised volunteer tourists by the types of projects 
volunteers prefer: the ?community-based? volunteer versus ?wildlife? volunteer.  
25 
 
 
A review of the similarities and differences between these typologies, depicted in 
Table 3, illustrates common socio-demographic variables (age, gender, education, 
country of origin) and other common themes: motivation to volunteer; destination 
type; length of stay; travel experience; expectations; and project type. However, 
McGehee et al. (2009) differ in so far as their clusters also include an analysis of 
travel companions, that is, whom, if anyone, volunteers travel with. The 
?vanguards? prefer to travel with friends and family rather than on their own.  
 
The typologies illustrated in Table 3, all exclude factors such as ?beneficial 
impacts?. In other words, is there a type of volunteer tourist that will benefit the 
most (or least) from volunteer tourism? Therefore, there is an opportunity in this 
study to broaden our knowledge of these typologies by identifying whether there is 
such a ?type?; thus contributing to our knowledge of volunteer tourism and its 
impact on the tourist.  
 
 
Table 3. The similarities and contrasts between volunteer tourist typologies 
        
 
   
 
   
 Volunteer tourist typologies   
 
Daldeniz and 
Hampton Coghlan 
McGehee, 
Clemmons 
and Lee 
 
 
Lepp Assumptions underlying these typologies  
1 VOLUNtourist 
mature 
market pragmatists 
 
? 
The main motivation for participation is based on altruistic 
motives 
2 volunTOURIST 
young 
market  
 
 The main motivation for participation is the tourism activity itself 
3 ? ? ? 
 
? Generally students or educated to at least degree level 
4 ? ? 
vanguards, 
pragmatists 
 
? Originate from developed economies 
5 ? ? questers 
 
? Travel to less developed economies 
6   
vanguards, 
pragmatists 
 
Travel to developed economies 
7 ? ? questers 
 
? Stay at a destination for long periods of time 
8  ? 
vanguards, 
pragmatists 
 
Stay at destination for short periods of time 
9 ? 
mature 
market 
vanguards, 
questers 
 
? Experienced travellers 
10 ? 
young 
market pragmatists 
 
? Inexperienced travellers 
11 ? ? vanguards 
 
? Generally younger volunteers 
12 ? 
young 
market vanguards 
 
? Expect personal development outcomes 
13 ? 
mature 
market pragmatists 
 
? Expect to make a difference 
14 ? ? ? 
 
? Mainly female participants 
15   vanguards 
 
 Generally travel with friends and family 
16 ? ?  
 
wildlife Participate in wildlife and conservation projects 
17 ?  ? 
 
community Participate in children and community projects 
 ? indicates similarity; blank represents a contrast, or 
not applicable; and ? represents ?not specified?  
26 
 
 
 
The following section reviews the human capital, the stock of competences, 
abilities, knowledge, and skills etc, gained by the volunteer during their volunteer 
tourism experience. 
  
27 
 
1.4. The impact of volunteering on the 
tourist/volunteer 
At the start of this chapter, volunteer tourism was said to be a combination of two 
concepts: tourism and volunteering at the destination visited. Therefore, prior to 
examining the literature on the impacts of volunteer tourism specifically, it is 
pertinent to examine the impacts of tourism, international and domestic 
volunteering; and, at the same time, to identify the shortfalls in the existing 
literature. 
 
1.4.1. Impact of tourism on the visitor 
Munro, Morrison-Saunders and Hughes (2008) review of some 21 day-trips is very 
relevant to this tourism research. Ecotourism and wildlife tourism studies tend to 
dominate this area of research. Munro et al. (2008) focussed on environmental 
interpretation of various wildlife parks, a natural areas management strategy 
aimed at promoting more sustainable visitor behaviour for the longer-term. Their 
review indicates an evaluative emphasis on quantifying knowledge gain and 
attitude change with few studies (two) extending to the measurement of 
behavioural change, and whether knowledge gain and attitude change is 
translated into action at home. Munro et al. (2008) argue that, without the latter, it 
is difficult to determine the effectiveness of environmental interpretation 
programmes. Interestingly, Hughes, Packer and Ballantyne?s (2009) study of day-
 visitors to Australian wildlife parks, revealed that although visitors felt their 
behaviour had increased towards environmental issues three months following 
their visit, t-tests revealed no significant differences in their conservation 
behaviour, apart from litter pick-up which was just one of 13 conservation 
practices. Ballantyne and Packer (2011) similarly showed statistically that a 
proportion of park visitors who intended to adopt environmentally responsible 
behaviours post-visit, did not translate these intentions into real actions. Alvarez 
and Roney (2010) remark on this problem; even if consumers worry about the 
environment, they may not necessarily behave in a pro-environmental way.  
 
With the aim of enhancing the effectiveness of these free-choice learning 
programmes, Ballantyne, Packer and Sutherland (2011) identified four factors that 
facilitate visitor change from a sample of 240 day-visitors to four marine based 
28 
 
tourism venues in Australia: experiences that involve seeing and hearing 
(experiential engagement); emotional affinity (feelings); an opportunity for 
reflection, to think deeply about what they have seen, heard and felt (reflective 
engagement); and an opportunity to make a personal response as to what they did 
about it (behavioural response). This type of experience is synonymous with 
experiential learning in that visitors learn from direct experience. Ballantyne, 
Packer and Sutherland (2011) elaborated: in order to facilitate change, particularly 
behaviour change, visitors need more than a simple presentation of facts [about 
wildlife]; they need to learn through observation and interaction with the 
environment, as opposed to reading about facts from a book.  
 
Whilst environmental interaction appears to facilitate change, Botha and De Crom 
(2010) additionally noted the importance of human interaction. Their study found 
that 15% more visitors learned something new from guided (interactive) routes 
rather than self-guided routes, in a nature reserve and botanical garden in South 
Africa. Similarly, Wearing and Neil (1999) discovered that interpersonal 
interpretation, involving interaction between staff and visitors, had more probability 
of influencing the visitor than non-personal interpretation such as brochures. 
Although, with regard to the latter, Ballantyne and Packer (2011) argue that action 
resources, including printed mailings, social media and web-based learning 
materials, function as post-visit reinforcement; facilitating the translation of 
intentions into real actions. 
     
Whilst these tourism studies identify some factors that influence change in the 
visitor, such as direct experience, interaction with staff, and action resources; 
further research, in different contexts of tourism, may identify other factors (Schott, 
2011; Sherraden et al., 2008; Uriely, Reichel and Ron, 2003). 
 
Following various wildlife tourism encounters, Ballantyne, Packer and Falk (2011) 
captured outcomes in relation to alterations in knowledge and skills, attitudes, 
behaviour, interests, beliefs and emotions. They found wildlife experiences have 
the potential to positively impact tourists? awareness, appreciation and actions in 
relation to the specific wildlife they encounter and the environment in general. 
Other tourism experiences were explored by Alexander, Bakir and Wickens (2010) 
who reported similar categories of impacts on the tourist with the addition of 
29 
 
changes (increases) in levels of confidence. In the study, vacation travel was 
shown to provide opportunities for personal development; one of their volunteers 
commented: ?I saw the willingness of people to help and converse in the USA in 
contrast to London which has given me a better general outlook on life which is 
applied to work too? (p. 48-49) and another reported: ?I have a go at a lot more 
things? (p. 91). Not only do both studies show the potential impacts of tourism 
experiences on the visitor but, also, how different tourism contexts can broaden 
our understanding of these impacts. 
 
1.4.2. Impact of international volunteering on the volunteer 
Earlier in the chapter, international volunteering was described as a form of 
tourism because it involves travelling to and staying in places outside one?s usual 
environment. There is a small but increasing body of research on the impacts of 
international volunteering on the volunteer, generated by the Institute for 
Volunteering Research, departments of social work and centres for social 
development, all of which gather evidence to support government initiatives to 
boost involvement in international volunteering, especially schemes to support 
young people and Diaspora communities to volunteer overseas (Machin, 2008). 
 
Machin (2008) gathered data from academic and practitioner-led resources on the 
impacts of returned international volunteers, supplemented by literature, research, 
project evaluations and case studies provided by the VSO. With regard to the 
latter, many of these cases involved teaching projects overseas. Machin generally 
found that international volunteers were positively impacted by their experience 
and highlighted similar themes to those found from tourism experiences (see 
Ballantyne, Packer and Falk, 2011; Alexander et al., 2010). Additionally, she 
provided detail on the types of skills and knowledge that volunteers felt they had 
gained, such as, working with different cultures, communication, patience, problem 
solving and influencing and persuading; learning about diversity, tolerance, 
development issues, taking on responsibility, team working and leadership skills; 
and adaptability, evaluation and management skills, some of which assisted their 
professional development. Furthermore, she noted that volunteers increased their 
participation in volunteering after they returned home, becoming active citizens 
and working towards the betterment of their community through their volunteer 
work. 
30 
 
 
In addition to this rich subjective data, a quasi-experimental study was carried out 
by McBride et al. (2010). They studied 221 international volunteers participating in 
children and community based projects, and measured the impacts of international 
service on them. These volunteers were matched to a comparison group of 145 
people who did not volunteer internationally during the same study period. They 
measured changes between two time periods: before leaving to volunteer abroad 
(baseline) and after volunteering abroad (post-trip test). Those who did not 
volunteer abroad during the study period (comparison group) were also surveyed 
at the same two time periods. McBride et al. used a bespoke instrument known as 
The International Volunteering Impacts Survey (IVIS) to measure changes in 
particular areas: international awareness (whether people think about problems of 
nations outside their own), intercultural relations (relationships with people of other 
cultures and ethnic or racial backgrounds), international social capital (the extent 
of respondents? personal and organisational contacts who live in other countries) 
and international career intentions (respondents? intentions to work in a career 
related to international or social and economic development issues). Whilst these 
areas of interest are not behavioural measures, they do gauge volunteers? 
perceptions of, and interest in, international issues one week to one month post-
 trip; these trips range from two to 12 months. For the two time periods used in this 
study, McBride et al. (2010) found that there were no differences between non-
 participants and volunteers on the pre-test; however, the post-test revealed that 
volunteers reported significant increases in three of the four areas: international 
awareness, intercultural social capital and international career intentions; also, 
there was evidence of participants working towards social justice - the idea of 
creating a society or institution that is based on the principles of equality and 
solidarity, that understands and values human rights, and that recognizes the 
dignity of every human being. Although the IVIS identified some changes amongst 
these participants, it is a bespoke instrument in its infancy, limited by its specific 
interest categories and its administration to mainly American volunteers of two 
international voluntary organisations: WorldTeach and Cross Cultural Solutions. 
Nevertheless, the instrument offers the potential to build a comparative evidence 
base on some international voluntary service (IVS) outcomes, across IVS 
programmes and contexts. Although some impacts of international volunteering 
31 
 
are noted in these studies, the reasons for why participation had these beneficial 
impacts, is not explored. 
 
1.4.3. Impact of domestic volunteering on the volunteer 
In contrast to international volunteering, studies on domestic volunteering tend to 
focus on self well-being6 (refer to: Arnstein, Vidal, Wells-Federman, Morgan and 
Caudill, 2002; Howlett, 2004; Morrow-Howell, Hinterlong, Rozario and Tang, 2003; 
Stevens-Ratchford, 2005; Thoits and Hewitt, 2001; Wilson and Musick, 2000; Van 
Willigen, 2000), successful ageing (see Lee and Brudney, 2008) and self 
outcomes, such as, reduced rates of course failure, reduced rates of re-offending 
and a reduction in teenage pregnancy (see Moore and Allen, 1996; Paine, 
Ockenden and Machin, 2007).  
 
Additionally, some personality traits have been identified as outcomes of domestic 
volunteering; such as, increases in trust, self-efficacy, intellect and dutifulness 
(Brown 1999; Hamilton and Fenzel, 1988; Wilson and Musick, 2000). Also, 
similarly to international volunteering, domestic studies investigate impacts on 
volunteers? attitudes towards society, such as, citizenship, development issues 
and poverty related problems (see Eley, 2001; Moore and Allen, 1996; 
Rattanamuk, 2003; Wilson and Musick, 2000); with findings in-line with 
international volunteering outcomes.  
 
The studies on well-being are drawn from government surveys such as the 
American Changing Lives Surveys, with samples of over 2000 people. For 
example, Van Willigen (2000) studied the long-term impact of volunteer work on 
the well-being of elderly persons (over 60 years) using a representative sample of 
volunteers and non-volunteers. She found that volunteers had significantly higher 
levels of life satisfaction and better health than their non-volunteer counterparts; 
whilst Wilson and Musick (2000) found volunteering had no effect on the levels of 
depression, a sub-set of well-being, among adults below that age. In this respect, 
there is a call to investigate the effects of age because the reason for this 
difference in impact is little understood (Howlett, 2004). Wilson and Musick (2000) 
suggest that it may be attributed to the types of volunteer activities/projects carried 
                                                 
6 Well-being is otherwise known as quality of life. The standard indicators of the quality of life include not 
only wealth and employment, but also the built environment, physical and mental health (including 
depression), education, recreation and leisure time, and social belonging.  
32 
 
out by the different age groups; or, the benefit of social integration for the older 
volunteers, the extent to which an individual is connected to other people 
(Chambre, 1987; Stevens-Ratchford, 2005; Wilson and Musick, 2000), as 
volunteering provides a broader and diverse network of interactions than other 
types of social activity (Lee and Brudney, 2008). Another possible explanation is 
occupying a role which may augment power, prestige and resources; it may 
heighten one?s sense of identity; provides challenging and meaningful work 
(Arnstein et al., 2002; Morrow-Howell et al., 2003). Other ideas put forward include 
feelings of usefulness and boosted self-esteem (Hunter and Linn, 1980); 
protection against role loss (Chambre, 1987) and social isolation (Moen, 
Dempster-McClain and Williams, 1992). However, not all studies concur on the 
beneficial impacts of volunteering for older people (Krause, Hertzog and Baker, 
1992).  
 
Some domestic volunteering impact studies have found personality trait changes 
amongst their volunteers. For example, Wilson and Musick (2000) noted increases 
in self-efficacy amongst their volunteers and questioned how long such benefits 
linger after the volunteer role is relinquished. Stevens-Ratchford (2005) also 
identified self-efficacy as an outcome of volunteering and attributed this to social 
connectedness and active engagement offered by volunteering activities. Some 
studies have recorded higher scores on trust measures for volunteers (Brown 
1999; Musick and Wilson, 2008); whilst others have found no relationship between 
volunteering and trust (Kohut, 1997). Hamilton and Fenzel (1988) measured 
?dutifulness? amongst community volunteers and found no significant increases in 
this trait. In other words, there was no increased sense of personal duty to help 
meet the needs of others. They did, however, provide evidence of ?intellect? 
changes amongst adolescents (aged between 11 and 17). In all of these cases, 
without the use of control groups, it is difficult to ascertain whether these traits 
were influenced by the social practice of volunteering or whether they were the 
cause of volunteering. If it is the latter, there is an opportunity to explore a 
personality type for volunteers ? a bundle of traits that distinguishes volunteers 
from non-volunteers (Musick and Wilson, 2008). Also, if personality traits can be 
influenced by the social practice of volunteering, then they are not as stable as 
some personality researchers maintain (for example, McCrae and Costa, 2003). 
 
33 
 
Although these domestic volunteering studies provide insight into the potential of 
international volunteer tourism, some fundamental differences are also noted that 
could influence outcomes. For example,  international volunteers tend to be below 
the age of 35 (Harlow and Pomfret, 2007; Lepp, 2008; McGehee, 2002; 2005; 
McIntosh and Zahra, 2007; Sin, 2009; Wearing, 2001; Zahra, 2006, 2011); mainly 
females (Jones, 2004; TRAM, 2008); their motivation extends to travelling, 
adventure and cultural exchange (Gecko et al., 2009; Jones, 2004; Laythorpe; 
2009; Lepp, 2008; Wearing, 2001; Wickens, 2009, 2011); and they tend to be 
more occasional than regular volunteers (Low et al., 2007).  
 
1.4.4. Impact of international volunteer tourism on the visitor 
A review of the literature on the impact of tourism and volunteering, on the 
participant, provides some evidence that volunteer tourism is well placed to offer 
experiences which have the potential to change the visitor. As a developing 
market segment, volunteer tourism studies contain a growing body of research into 
the impact on the visitor. Nevertheless, there is a call for more rigorous research to 
document impacts (European Commission, 2007; Hills and Mahmud, 2007; Lee 
and Woosnam, 2010; Machin, 2008). 
 
Wearing (2001) posits that the most important development which may occur from 
the volunteer tourist experience is that of a personal nature, particularly a greater 
awareness of the self as a global citizen with responsibilities within various 
communities. His case study of volunteers in the Santa Elena Forest Reserve 
found that interactions with other volunteers and the community changed the 
volunteer participants by developing their confidence and increasing their 
awareness of other people and environments. Once back home, this awareness 
he says, ?results in a variety of learning and behavioural changes, such as being 
less self-centred, more thoughtful and more open? (p. 134). Zahra (2006) 
elaborated on these deep and complex experiences which, she claims, enabled 
volunteers to reflect on their lives and discover their spiritual side, resulting in 
subsequent changes in attitudes, values and behaviour which manifested in: 
?finding God?, ?taking religion more seriously? and ?getting off drink and drugs? (p. 
182). McGehee and Santos (2005) offered examples of how 16 international 
community volunteers? self-efficacy had increased, by becoming more socially 
active and avoiding restaurants that could exploit local citizens or boycotting 
34 
 
corporations based on their record of fair labour practices. Their findings, three to 
five years (plus) later, indicate that participation in volunteer tourism had a positive 
effect on both post-trip social movement activities (support of, or participation in, 
movements for change, or resistance to change, of some major aspect of society, 
see McGehee, 2002) and support for activism. Volunteers attributed this effect to 
resource mobilization - the rich social networks, particularly friendships developed 
during the trip itself; these social networks or ties share and/or support each 
other?s ideas and goals (McGehee and Santos, 2005). In contrast to these 
community-based impacts, Broad (2003) and Harlow and Pomfret (2007) 
observed the on-site impacts of environmental volunteering and found recurring 
themes amongst their volunteers; they additionally noted that volunteers 
developed skills to deal with challenging situations. However, it is unknown 
whether these changes transferred into the visitors? everyday lives once they 
returned home, although Broad subsequently reported changes in career direction 
of three volunteers. Sin (2009) found, amongst her 11 student volunteer tourists 
from Singapore who visited South Africa for 26 days, that while there was a sense 
amongst respondents that it was a great experience, and they did allude to some 
changes in opinions after their experiences, it is inconclusive as to whether this led 
to substantial changes in their value-system, social consciousness or willingness 
to volunteer in other arenas after their volunteer tourism experience.  
 
In order to improve our understanding of whether there are substantial changes 
following a volunteer tourism experience, there are other aspects to ?self? which 
can be investigated and measured. Ryckman (2008) posits that within self ? the 
tourist for the purposes of this study - we not only find his or her habits, beliefs, 
values, skills, interests and so forth, but also a person?s traits. Traits cover a wide 
range of attitudes and behaviours and can be measured using personality tests 
(Albery, Chandler, Field, Jones, Messer, Moore and Sterling, 2004). For example, 
Bailey and Russell (2010) used a psychometric instrument known as the NEO-PI 
(see Costa and McCrae, 1985) to measure changes in one personality trait 
?openness to experience? amongst volunteer tourists. As a personality trait, 
openness describes people who are willing to explore possibilities, entertain 
discordant opinions and investigate novel approaches to ongoing conundrums 
(Costa and McCrae, 1985). Individuals who exhibit openness also tend to be more 
trusting, tolerant of diversity, adventurous, have a good awareness of their own 
35 
 
feelings and easily become involved in artistic and natural events (ibid., 1985). As 
a result of their study, Bailey and Russell found significant differences between the 
pre-, post-trip test and follow-up scores in this trait, suggesting that growth in 
openness not only happened during the programme but continued to grow for the 
month following the programme; thus adding to the controversy over the 
malleability of personality traits (Albery et al., 2004). 
 
Not only did Bailey and Russell find changes in openness, but also changes in 
civic attitudes and wisdom. Respondents reported that they could make more of a 
difference in the world; and have a responsibility to, and interest in, solving 
problems (civic attitude). With regard to the wisdom trait, this was measured using 
Ardelt?s 3-Dimensional Wisdom Scale (2003). Respondents reported an increased 
desire to understand life and its significance and deeper meaning, particularly 
regarding intra- and interpersonal matters; increased empathy and compassion 
towards others; and greater willingness to consider life from various perspectives. 
Importantly, Ardelt (2003) reported a positive association of wisdom to general 
well-being, purpose in life, subjective and physical health, positive family relations 
and fewer depressive symptoms in adulthood. Unlike the increases in openness to 
experience and civic attitude, Bailey and Russell found that, for the wisdom trait, 
there was a 25% decline between the post-trip test and follow-up scores. This 
suggests that, for this trait, there were strong initial gains in measured outcomes 
when the participants returned home, but a decline four weeks later.  
 
Bailey and Russell?s study provides statistical evidence of change amongst 
volunteers and provides an indication that some impacts last longer than others; 
however, its validity could be improved by using a control group to eliminate some 
alternative explanations of the results, for example, day-to-day life. It appears that, 
to date, no other volunteer tourism study has used a control group. Furthermore, 
there is an opportunity, in this study, to measure many other personality traits, 
such as, anxiety, depression, vulnerability, assertiveness, amongst many others; 
and then to discover, from carrying out post-trip interviews with the volunteers, 
how changes translate into their everyday lives at home; thus providing a broader 
understanding of the impact on the tourist. Nevertheless, the results of Bailey and 
Russell?s study are encouraging in that they further validate earlier interpretative 
36 
 
enquiries identifying increased ?openness to experience? as an impact of the 
volunteer tourism experience (see Harlow and Pomfret, 2007). 
 
In addition to exploring impacts of volunteer tourism, this study also aims to 
provide a better understanding of the elements that influence change in the visitor, 
and the process by which change occurs because this is an area which is under 
researched (Lee and Woosnam, 2010). Wearing (2001) attributed change to 
?interactionism?, which he describes as ?the social interaction between participants 
on a particular project site with representatives of the community, group and 
natural environment resulting in an exchange of influence? (p. 124). He 
emphasizes the direct personal and cultural communication and mutual 
understanding between tourists and residents. Zahra (2006) elaborated from her 
sample of Australian and New Zealand community volunteers, volunteering 
between four and 14 years ago in Asia: ?when volunteers were confronted with 
suffering, poverty, cultures embedded with deep values devoid of materialism and 
consumerism, combined with the cheerfulness of the host communities amid the 
lack of basic needs, each volunteer was transformed? (p. 176). This hands-on 
experience of another culture also transformed many of Harlow and Pomfret?s 
(2007) environmental volunteers. Zahra and McIntosh (2007) termed these 
experiences ?cathartic? because of their ability to positively transform volunteers, 
and for the long term. These common themes were also noted from interviews 
with 46 volunteers on community projects in Nepal (Wickens, 2011) and similarly 
by Laythorpe (2009) investigating the cultural experiences of 30 international 
volunteers who undertook long-term volunteering in Kenya; living and working in a 
culture that was significantly different from their own. Lepp (2008) found other 
experiences amongst his volunteers, such as, engaging in activities that are 
challenging (see Csikszentmihalyi, 1990), working towards common goals and 
participating in meaningful work. Others (Bailey and Russell, 2010; Sin, 2009; 
Zahra and McIntosh, 2007) found that ?reflection? was an important element for 
transforming volunteers. All of these factors contribute to an experience which is 
more likely to meet volunteers? expectations (Andereck, McGehee, Clemmons and 
Lee, 2010).  
 
In relation to this ?alternative? tourism experience, Howlett (2004) questions 
whether other experiences, or forms of social interaction, could deliver similar 
37 
 
results, thus supporting the argument for developing more evidence on the factors 
which influence change in the visitor. For instance, interaction with ?others? on 
general vacation was found to change the tourist (Alexander et al., 2010); as did 
interactive day-visits to wildlife parks (Ballantyne, Packer and Sutherland, 2011); 
and guided routes of nature reserves (Botha and De Crom, 2010). Birdwell (2011), 
Harlow and Pomfret (2007) and Sherraden et al. (2008) all suggest that even the 
type of volunteer project itself could influence the experience and therefore the 
impact; although, Lepp (2008) found that community and wildlife volunteers benefit 
from their experiences in similar ways. Also, the duration of the volunteering 
experience could make a difference to the outcomes; Birdwell (2011) noted that 
long-term placements (of at least six months) appear more likely, than short-term 
placements, to result in positive outcomes in skills, career and educational 
aspirations.  
 
Bailey and Russell examined the influence of other factors on the volunteer 
tourism experience, such as, gender, age, socio-economic variables, occupying 
leadership roles and time spent in personal reflection. Interestingly, only students 
who were involved in regular leadership roles beforehand, and students who spent 
more time in weekly reflection, reported stronger personal growth. Regardless of 
these other factors, Birdwell (2011) found younger volunteers were more likely to 
report measureable changes in personal development and social development; 
suggesting that age could indeed influence the outcome. So, the influence of these 
different variables remains unclear. 
 
A review of the literature so far highlights the many impacts of volunteer tourism 
on participating tourists, emphasising authentic interaction between, and 
involvement with, hosts and other volunteers. In addition to these ?interactions?, 
other influencing factors are also noted and summarised in Table 4: a) interaction 
(Bailey and Russell, 2010; Harlow and Pomfret, 2007; Laythorpe, 2009; Lepp, 
2008; McGehee and Santos, 2005; McIntosh and Zahra, 2007; Sin, 2009; 
Wearing, 2001; Wickens, 2011); b) engaging in challenging activities, working 
towards common goals and doing meaningful work (Lepp, 2008); c) hands-on 
experience of another culture (Harlow and Pomfret, 2007; Laythorpe, 2009; 
McIntosh and Zahra, 2007); d) establishing networks and friendships (Laythorpe, 
2009; McGehee and Santos, 2005); e) positive experiences that meet 
38 
 
expectations (Andereck, McGehee, Clemmons and Lee, 2010); f) seeing suffering 
and experiencing hardship, living with the local people (Bailey and Russell, 2010; 
Laythorpe, 2009; Lepp, 2008; Wickens, 2009, 2011; Zahra, 2006, 2011); g) 
opportunity for reflection (Bailey and Russell, 2010; McGhee, Clemmons and Lee, 
2009; McIntosh and Zahra, 2007; Wickens, 2011; Zahra 2006, 2011; Zahra and 
McIntosh, 2007); h) meaningful relationships with hosts (McIntosh and Zahra, 
2007; Wickens, 2011); and I) occupying leadership roles pre-trip (Bailey and 
Russell, 2010). Additionally, McGhee et al., (2009) identified other transformative 
potentials: the geographic destination; level and type of interaction; intensity of 
experience; motivation for participation; expectation from providers; personal 
issues; and previous life experience. The number of inputs to this transformational 
experience makes it likely that the volunteering experience will vary greatly from 
individual to individual (Daldeniz and Hampton, 2011; Tomazos and Butler, 2008).  
 
It is argued that some of these influencing factors imply a power relationship 
between hosts and guests because many volunteer tourists originate from ?richer? 
developed countries and travel to ?poorer? economies (see McGehee, 2011; 
Wearing, 2001; Wearing and Grabowski, 2011). From this view, volunteers have 
sufficient economic resources to pay for a volunteer tourism experience, and in 
this respect they have economic capital (Wearing, 2001). They also have the 
power to take time out of their schedules to travel, while their hosts are less mobile 
and therefore less able to make choices about leisure and cross-cultural education 
(Birdwell, 2011). Volunteers also bring with them cultural capital, such as, 
educational qualifications and knowledge of other languages (Birdwell, 2011). 
Additionally, they have social capital gained from their family upbringing, 
affiliations and networks amongst many other advantages (Wearing, 2001). 
Volunteers therefore have a large portfolio of capital versus their hosts (Crossley, 
2008). In this respect there are potential consequences for those researching 
community impacts as well as volunteer impacts; with regard to the latter, the act 
of volunteering and fulfilling altruistic motives, gains further symbolic capital in the 
form of altruistic credentials (Wearing, 2001; Bailey and Russell, 2010; Lough et 
al., 2009b). 
  
39 
 
Table 4. A summary of the experiences and other influencing factors  
Experiences and influencing factors Reference 
Interactions with participants on a particular 
project site with representatives of the 
community, group and natural environment. 
Wearing, 2001; McGehee and Santos, 2005; 
McIntosh and Zahra, 2007; Wickens, 2011; 
Harlow and Pomfret, 2007; Lepp, 2008; Sin, 
2009; Bailey and Russell, 2010; Laythorpe, 
2009. 
Challenging activities and everyone working 
towards common goals and participating in 
meaningful work. 
Lepp, 2008 
Hands-on experience of another culture, its 
traditional values and customs (immersion). 
McIntosh and Zahra, 2007; Harlow and Pomfret, 
2007; Laythorpe, 2009; Wickens, 2011. 
Rich social networks, particularly friendships 
developed during the trip itself. 
Laythorpe, 2009; McGehee and Santos, 2005. 
Positive volunteer tourism experience that 
meets the volunteers? expectations. 
Andereck, McGehee, Clemmons and Lee, 
2010. 
Being confronted with suffering, poverty, 
cultures embedded with deep values devoid of 
materialism and consumerism, combined with 
the cheerfulness of the host communities amid 
the lack of basic needs/challenges of adapting 
to life in a rural environment. 
Zahra 2006, 2011; Zahra and McIntosh, 2007; 
Lepp, 2008; Laythorpe, 2009; Wickens, 2009, 
2011; Bailey and Russell, 2010. 
Opportunity for reflection. Lepp, 2008; McIntosh and Zahra, 2007; Zahra 
2006, 2011; Zahra and McIntosh, 2007; 
Wickens, 2011; McGhee, Clemmons and Lee, 
2009; Bailey and Russell, 2010. 
Having meaningful relationships with hosts. McIntosh and Zahra, 2007; Wickens, 2011. 
Occupying leadership roles pre-trip. Bailey and Russell, 2010. 
 
 
Not all researchers, however, concur that volunteers gain from volunteer tourism:  
Gudykunst (1998), for example, labels ?gap yearers? as ?fluent fools? who have the 
language of understanding but possess little actual understanding. Likewise, 
Simpson (2004) argues that gap year providers? claims for the educative benefits 
of overseas volunteering are based on flawed assumptions regarding the value of 
experience in changing attitudes. Additionally, there are a number of others who 
have found no evidence to suggest that changes in attitude and good intentions 
convert into real actions at home (Alvarez and Roney, 2010; Sin, 2009) and others 
have shown that some post-trip outcomes decline over time (Bailey and Russell, 
40 
 
2010). However, the majority of evidence presented so far, summarised in Table 
5, identifies self-reported changes, such as: a) increased self-efficacy (McGehee, 
2002; McGehee and Santos, 2005; Zahra, 2011; Zahra and McIntosh, 2007); b) 
personal development (Bailey and Russell, 2010; Broad, 2003; Harlow and 
Pomfret, 2007; Lepp, 2008; Wearing, 2001; Wickens, 2011); c) increased cross-
 cultural understanding (Bailey and Russell, 2010; Harlow and Pomfret, 2007; 
Lepp, 2008; McGehee and Santos, 2005; Sin, 2009; Wearing, 2001); d) some 
specific behavioural changes such as getting off drink and drugs (Zahra, 2006, 
2011; Zahra and McIntosh, 2007); e) attitude changes (Bailey and Russell, 2010; 
Broad, 2003; Harlow and Pomfret, 2007; Lepp, 2008; Zahra, 2006, 2011; Zahra 
and McIntosh, 2007); f) value changes, often in relation to materialism and 
consumerism (Laythorpe, 2009; Zahra, 2006, 2011; Zahra and McIntosh, 2007); g) 
empirical evidence of increased openness to experience and wisdom (Bailey and 
Russell, 2010; Harlow and Pomfret, 2007); h) rich social networks, particularly 
friendships (Harlow and Pomfret, 2007; Laythorpe, 2009; McGehee and Santos, 
2005); and i) changes in personal circumstances such as career direction (Broad, 
2003). 
 
A review of the literature in four different domains: tourism, international and 
domestic volunteering and volunteer tourism, reveal similar outcomes for 
participants, supporting the notion, presented by Howlett (2004), that other 
interactional experiences could indeed produce similar self-outcomes. Hence the 
need to gain more knowledge of these experiences and other factors, such as, 
age, gender, length of stay and activities (project type) which may influence the 
volunteer. The studies reviewed so far concur that tourism and volunteering 
experiences present similar opportunities to learn about the self, to increase 
participant?s awareness of other people and environments, to change one?s 
attitude, values and behaviours towards certain things, to become more open-
 minded, to improve well-being, to benefit from rich social networks, particularly 
friendships, and to change one?s personal circumstances.  
 
  
41 
 
Table 5. A summary of the impacts of volunteer tourism 
Impacts Reference 
Personal development ? 
? Increased confidence 
? Learning about self 
? Discovering new abilities 
? Plot a more meaningful course in life/ find new goals/purpose in life. 
Wearing, 2001; Broad, 2003; Harlow 
and Pomfret, 2007; Lepp, 2008; Bailey 
and Russell, 2010; Wickens, 2011. 
Cross-cultural understanding ?  
? Increased awareness of other people and environments 
? Less self-centred 
? More thoughtful  
? More open 
? Have more favourable opinions of ?others? in their everyday lives 
? Becoming conscious and worldly tourists or individuals 
? More tolerant of diversity (liberalism). 
Wearing, 2001; McGehee and Santos, 
2005; Harlow and Pomfret, 2007; Lepp, 
2008; Sin, 2009; Bailey and Russell, 
2010. 
Self-efficacy increased ? 
? Becoming more socially active. 
McGehee and Santos, 2005; McGehee, 
2002; Zahra, 2011; Zahra and McIntosh, 
2007. 
Behavioural changes ? 
? More vocal about social issues 
? Changes in the types of tourism products purchased 
? Getting off drink and drugs. 
Zahra, 2006, 2011; Zahra and McIntosh, 
2007. 
Attitude changes ?  
? Taking religion more seriously 
? Greater appreciation of the environment 
? Greater tolerance of ?others? 
? Being able to put things in perspective 
? Improved civic attitudes including feelings that one can make a 
difference in the world. 
Zahra, 2006, 2011; Zahra and McIntosh, 
2007; Broad, 2003; Harlow and Pomfret, 
2007; Lepp, 2008; Bailey and Russell, 
2010. 
Value changes - 
? Materialism and consumerism 
? Finding God. 
Laythorpe, 2009; Zahra, 2006, 2011; 
Zahra and McIntosh, 2007. 
Skills learned ?  
? Developing skills to deal with challenging situations 
? Ability to get on with other people. 
Broad, 2003; Harlow and Pomfret, 2007. 
Openness to experience ?  
? More trusting  
? More adventuresome 
? Increased awareness of own feelings (emotionality)  
? Easily become involved in artistic and natural events. 
Bailey and Russell, 2010; Harlow and 
Pomfret, 2007. 
Wisdom ? 
? Increased well-being 
? Improved physical and mental health, including depression 
? Increased ability and desire to understand life and its significance and 
deeper meaning 
? Increased empathy and compassion toward others 
? Increased reflection. 
Bailey and Russell, 2010. 
Rich social networks, particularly friendships. 
 
Harlow and Pomfret, 2007; McGehee 
and Santos, 2005; Laythorpe, 2009. 
Personal circumstances - 
? Career changes. 
Birdwell, 2011; Broad, 2003. 
42 
 
Pertaining to the experiences attributed to these outcomes, there are many 
recurring themes across all four domains. One noticeable difference, however, is 
the focus of tourism studies, particularly day-trips to wildlife parks, on the 
experiential factors that facilitate visitor change. These factors are important in 
manufacturing experiences to produce certain conservation outcomes. For the 
same reason, volunteer tourism experiences could benefit from further exploration 
(Harlow and Pomfret, 2007). 
  
1.5. Motivation to volunteer abroad 
Schulman (2005) points out that in order to act one must have a motive. There is a 
plethora of contrasting research into why tourists volunteer abroad, summarised in 
Table 6. Wearing (2001) suggests that consumers are attracted to volunteer 
tourism because it satisfies their desire to ?travel? and to ?help?; drawing on Iso-
 Ahola?s travel motivation model (1982) to explain these forces - the individual?s 
desire to escape from one?s everyday circumstances and search for intrinsic 
rewards in the form of personal meaning through volunteer tourism. Wearing 
identified the motives of international volunteers in an attempt to gain insights into 
the facets each volunteer brought to the experience. The consistent themes that 
emerged as motivators for these volunteers were: ?altruism?, ?travel/adventure?, 
?personal growth?, ?cultural exchange/learning? and ?professional development? (p. 
66).  
 
Using a post-trip focus group of international volunteers, Brown (2005) identified 
similar motivational push factors/needs that drive some leisure tourists to seek 
volunteer experiences: cultural immersion, giving back and seeking educational 
and bonding opportunities. The motivational theme of ?camaraderie?, which did not 
emerge as a theme in Wearing?s study, emerged in Brown?s research. Both 
authors, however, concur that these themes are generally about relationships; 
interacting with the local people and with travel group members and the family. 
Most of Wearing?s and Brown?s themes recurred in Coghlan?s (2006a, 2006b) 
typological study of conservation volunteers; Coghlan, however, identified two 
further themes: ?having fun? and ?doing something novel?. This need for ?fun? and 
?new and different experiences? challenges notions that volunteer tourism is a 
serious form of leisure (see, for example, Lepp, 2009; and Bakir and Baxter, 2011, 
for touristic notions of ?fun?). Importantly, and contrary to Harlow and Pomfret 
43 
 
(2007) and McGhee et al. (2009), she also established that there was no 
connection between the motives identified pre-trip and the participants? on-site 
experience; she attributed this to the volunteer tourists? inability to imagine the full 
extent of the experience ahead of time. A similar sentiment was expressed by one 
of Wearing?s (2001) volunteers who said that his aim changed when he got to the 
destination (p. 59). Taillon and Jamal (2008) added the concept of ?religion?, to 
spread personal belief by word-of-mouth, as another important motivational factor. 
They quote from their volunteers: ?It was my desire to serve God by going out to 
do some of this type of work? and ?I was motivated by all God-related churchy stuff? 
(p. 2). While critiquing the different views on the motives to volunteer, Sin (2009), 
nevertheless, offered some key motivators, which, like Coghlan?s and others, 
centred on the volunteer?s ?self?. She quotes some volunteers? responses 
displaying this self-centred motive: ?I want to....  travel?, ?contribute?, ?see if I can do 
this?. Sin points to a tension between the volunteering desired outcomes of 
altruism, aid and development in the host destination and the desire of the 
volunteer tourists for self-centred aspirations. The conclusion of her research 
shows that, with her group of respondents, ?travelling? and ?getting to know the 
world? took precedence over their objectives of volunteering or addressing social 
injustices through volunteer tourism. In contrast, a recent industry web-based 
survey of 2481 responses by Gecko et al. (2009) found that altruism is more 
important for the volunteers than their learning experience and personal growth.  
 
These contrasting findings contribute to the argument raised by Batson, Ahmad 
and Lishner, (2005) and Brown (2005) about whether people volunteer to support 
their altruistic tendencies, or to travel and see the world (egoism). The motives 
identified in the volunteer tourism research are not very clear as to where, on a 
continuum from altruism to self enhancement, volunteer tourism falls. Daldeniz 
and Hampton (2011) offer the ?VOLUNtourists - volunTOURISTS? continuum, 
where volunteering for some volunteer tourists is clearly a holiday and for others it 
is a commitment with real costs. Lying between the poles of this continuum, 
however, there are others who see volunteering as an enjoyable experience with 
anticipated benefits in terms of career advancement. 
 
Benson and Seibert (2009) applied push-and-pull motivational theory to gain 
further insight into the motives of 80 German volunteer tourists post their visit to 
44 
 
South Africa. This theory states that the motivation to travel to a particular tourism 
destination can be a result of ?push? and/or ?pull? factors (Dann, 1981). According to 
this theory, there are a range of socio-psychological motives that drive a person to 
take a holiday such as the need for a break from stress, referring to these as 
?push? factors. ?Pull? motivations consist of the appealing attributes of a destination 
that an individual is seeking, such as the weather. Although Benson and Seibert?s 
push factors are consistent with this theory, the pull factors do suggest that the 
destination itself (in this case South Africa) is an important motivator for 
volunteers. The importance of the pull factors found in destinations was 
highlighted in Wickens (2011). Wickens?s volunteers were motivated to 
?experience the Nepali culture? (p. 46) and interviews with her volunteers ?shows 
they wanted to work and live authentically in a developing country that is a world 
away from their own? (p.47). Keese (2011) adds that in a largely consumer-
 dependent segment of the industry, destination is primary and place matters. 
Incidentally, the ?destination? theme has not been sufficiently explored in the 
volunteer tourism research and may provide an area for further research 
(Mittelberg and Palgi, 2011). 
 
This brief review of the literature on motives for participating in volunteer tourism 
thus shows varied, complex and contrasting views. This is not surprising given the 
different sample sizes, different providers of volunteer tourism, cultural differences 
of participants, previous experience of volunteer tourism, different lengths of stay, 
destinations visited, type of project and whether the data was collected pre-trip, 
on-site, immediately post-trip, or many years afterwards. As shown in the 
literature, Daldeniz and Hampton (2011), Sin (2009) and Tomazos and Butler 
(2008) all concur that tourists? motivation to volunteer varies from person to person 
and what each volunteer tourist takes out of his or her experience often results 
from a complex interplay between his or her original motivations, the specific 
context of volunteer work and the composition of the volunteer team, amongst 
many other factors.  
 
As for Wearing (2001) and Sin (2009), the motives of this study?s volunteers are 
identified for the purpose of gaining a greater understanding of who they are.  
45 
 
Table 6. A summary of the literature on volunteer tourist motivation 
Study and title Sample size versus 
population, sample 
type and data type 
Characteristics of the sample Themes 
Why volunteer on 
vacation? 
Wearing, 2001 
 
Volunteer Tourism, 
Experiences that make 
a Difference 
12 versus 12 of one 
group on the SERR 
project. 
 
 
Type of sample: 
opportunity. 
Type of data: qualitative. 
 
Respondents were 
interviewed after an 
undisclosed period of 
time. 
Gender: 67% F, 8% M, balance not 
specified. 
Age: average 21-22 years. 
Average spends: not specified. 
Average length of stay: three 
months. 
% of time on the project: not 
specified. 
Project type: conservation and 
community project in Costa Rica. 
Occupation: students/gap year 
students. 
Country of origin: Australia, Canada, 
Costa Rica. 
Altruism  
Travel/adventure  
Personal growth 
Cultural exchange 
Learning 
Professional development  
The YCI Programme 
Right time/right place 
Brown, 2005 
 
Understanding the 
Motives and Benefits of 
Voluntourists: What 
makes them tick? 
 
Size unknown. 
 
Type of sample: 
opportunity. 
Type of data: qualitative. 
 
Focus group. 
Gender: not specified. 
Age: not specified. 
Average spends: not specified. 
Average length of stay: not 
specified. 
% of time on the project: not 
specified. 
Project type: community work.  
Occupation: not specified. 
Country of origin: not specified. 
Cultural immersion 
Giving back 
Seeking educational and 
bonding opportunities 
Camaraderie 
Coghlan, 2006 
 
Choosing your 
Conservation-based 
Volunteer Tourism 
Market Segment with 
Care 
 
Size 76 versus all 
conservation volunteers 
on projects in Australia, 
Africa, Asia and Europe. 
 
Type of sample: 
opportunity. 
Type of data: qualitative. 
 
Respondents surveyed 
pre-trip and on-site 
diary. 
Gender: Majority F, smaller % M. 
Age: two main groups, the 18-24 
and 50+ 
Average spends: not specified. 
Average length of stay: mixture of 
long and short stays. 
% of time on the project: not 
specified. 
Project type: conservation projects 
in Australia, Africa, Asia and 
Europe.  
Occupation: not specified. 
Country of origin: Mainly Australia. 
Personal development 
Novel experience 
Fun 
Meeting new people 
Helping the researcher 
Developing skills and abilities 
Supporting the organisation 
Doing something meaningful 
Learning 
Experiencing a new culture 
 
Taillon and Jamal, 
2008 
 
Understanding the 
Volunteer Tourist: A 
qualitative Inquiry 
 
44 versus all US and 
Canadian people who 
volunteered within 3 
years of graduating from 
a university or whilst 
enrolled. 
 
 
Type of sample: 
purposive. 
Type of data: qualitative. 
Gender: 61% F, 39% M. 
Age: 19 to 70 years. 
Average spends. not specified. 
Average length of stay: at least two 
weeks. 
% of time on the project: not 
specified. 
Project type: community and wildlife. 
Occupation: students and 
graduates. 
Country of origin: US and Canada. 
To spread personal beliefs; 
primarily religious 
Word-of-mouth 
Professional benefits 
Cultural experience 
 
46 
 
 
Respondents were 
surveyed post-trip, by 
telephone. 
Sin, 2009 
 
Volunteer Tourism ? 
?Involve me and I will 
Learn?? 
11 versus 12 from one 
exploration trip to South 
Africa. 
 
 
Type of sample: 
opportunity. 
Type of data: qualitative. 
 
Respondents were 
surveyed pre-trip and 
on-site. 
Gender: 36% F, 27% M, balance not 
specified. 
Age: not specified. 
Average spends: US$2649 + 
personal expenses. 
Average length of stay: 26 days. 
% of time on the project: 50%. 
Project type: community project in 
South Africa. 
Occupation: students. 
Country of origin: Singapore. 
To travel 
To contribute 
To see if I can do this 
It?s convenient 
Gecko et al., 2009 
 
Volunteer Travel 
Insights ? Past 
Volunteering 
Experiences Abroad 
2481 versus unknown 
number across Europe, 
N. America and Asia. 
 
Type of sample: 
opportunity. 
Type of data: 
quantitative. 
 
Most respondents were 
surveyed either pre-
 potential trip, on-site, or 
post-trip. 
Gender: 66% F, 34% M. 
Age: 70% (? 34 years), 30% (>34 
years). 
Average spends: 37% > 1000USD. 
Average length of stay: 51% >one 
month, 49% ? one month. 
% of time on the project: not 
specified. 
Project type: 79% community work, 
21% conservation. Preference for S. 
America (45%) and Asia/Pacific 
(18%), South Africa (8%).  
Occupation: not specified. 
Country of origin: United Kingdom & 
Europe (51%), America (28%), 
Asia/Pacific (13%), Africa (2%), 
Middle East (1%) and no answer 
(5%).  
Altruism 
Personal growth 
Learning 
Cultural exchange and 
understanding 
Give back 
Do something meaningful 
Meet new people 
Develop friendships 
Gain life experiences 
Daldeniz and 
Hampton, 2011 
 
VOLUNtourists versus 
volunTOURISTS: a 
true dichotomy or 
merely a differing 
perception?  
 
Size 16 versus 20 on a 
rural development 
project in Nicaragua. 
 
Type of sample: 
purposive. 
Type of data: qualitative. 
 
Respondents 
interviewed on-site. 
Gender: not specified. 
Age: 23-38 years. 
Average spends: travel and nominal 
living expenses. 
Average length of stay: 3-12 
months. 
% of time on the project: not 
specified. 
Project type: community 
development work.  
Occupation: all graduates. 
Country of origin: United Kingdom & 
Europe (60%), America (35%), 
Asia/Pacific (5%). 
Enhance CV 
Course requirement 
Research/PhD 
Don?t know what else to do 
To travel the world and live 
abroad for an extended 
period of time 
Doing something useful 
Gaining new skills and field 
experience 
 
 
 
Benson and Seibert, 
2009 
 
The Motivations of 
German Volunteers: 
80 versus 171 
volunteers participating 
in the South African 
Volunteer Programme 
by German companies. 
Gender: 85% F, 15% M. 
Age: 82% (? 30 years), 18% (>30 
years). 
Average spends: not specified. 
Average length of stay: one to three 
Learning about another 
culture and country 
To live in another country 
To broaden one?s mind 
To experience something 
47 
 
The case of South 
Africa 
 
Type of sample: 
purposive. 
Type of data: 
quantitative. 
 
Respondents were 
surveyed post-trip. 
months. 
% of time on the project: not 
specified. 
Project type: 71% community work, 
14% conservation, 15% both; all in 
South Africa.  
Occupation: 41% students or 
graduates, 47.5% just completed A-
 levels. 
Country of origin: Germany.  
 
different 
To experience something 
new 
Meet African people 
 
 
 
 
Wickens, 2011 
 
Journeys of the Self: 
Volunteer Tourists in 
Nepal 
46 versus total on 
project. 
 
 
Type of sample: 
opportunity. 
Type of data: qualitative.  
 
Respondents 
interviewed on-site. 
Gender: not specified. 
Age: not specified. 
Average spends: not specified. 
Average length of stay: not 
specified. 
% of time on the project: not 
specified. 
Project type: community project in 
Nepal. 
Occupation: students/gap year 
students and professionals. 
Country of origin: not specified. 
Personal development 
Interest in development work  
To travel 
To learn about Nepali culture 
To help/do something useful 
To make a difference 
To live authentically in a 
developing country 
To experience a culture very 
different to own. 
 
 
1.6. Conclusion of this chapter 
An analysis of the literature at the beginning of this chapter reveals that there is a 
multiplicity of buzzwords associated with volunteer tourism, as well as similar 
themes and activities that contribute to the lack of clarity over our understanding of 
what volunteer tourism is.  
 
Although this chapter discusses emerging literature on the impacts of volunteer 
tourism on the tourist, it also points to the limited statistical evidence of these 
impacts; as well as the limited evidence of these impacts on volunteers? everyday 
lives, coupled with an insufficient examination of the experience itself and the 
factors that facilitate change in participating volunteer tourists. 
 
Finally, a brief review of the motives for participating in volunteer tourism suggests 
that the volunteer tourism experience may vary greatly from individual to 
individual. The following chapter reviews volunteer tourism in South Africa as it 
provides the context for this study. 
48 
 
2. CHAPTER TWO - the context: volunteer tourism in South 
Africa 
 
 
Currently South Africa rates as number five on the volunteer tourism destination 
rankings behind Peru, Brazil, Australia and India (Gecko et al., 2009). If South 
Africa Tourism neglects to market volunteer tourism, South Africa may lose its 
market position. Currently, South Africa has the ability to increase its 8% market 
share (Gecko et al., 2009). Furthermore, South Africa has the potential to become 
a world leader in volunteer tourism because, of the top 10 volunteer tourism 
destinations, only Australia appears to actively market volunteer tourism via its 
official destination web-site. The South Africa Tourism web-site only mentions 
volunteer tourism as a subset of responsible tourism. Also, importantly, no country 
regulates volunteer tourism in any way. This fact coupled with the importance of 
the reputation of the tourism provider and popularity of using a provider to connect 
to a project (Delaware North Companies Parks and Resorts and PGAV 
Destinations, 2011; Olivier, 2009), together with the government?s recognition of 
the importance of responsible and sustainable forms of tourism as seen from the 
following review of tourism in South Africa, there is an opportunity for that country 
to benefit from marketing volunteer tourism. 
 
2.1. Responsible tourism in South Africa 
In 2002, 280 representatives from 20 countries made an agreed declaration at the 
Cape Town Conference on Responsible Tourism in Destinations (2002). The 
declaration formed the basis for responsible tourism and included generating 
greater economic benefits for local people and enhancing the well-being of host 
communities, improving working conditions and access to the industry, involving 
local people in decisions that affect their lives and life chances, making positive 
contributions to the conservation of natural and cultural heritage embracing 
diversity and providing more enjoyable experiences for tourists through meaningful 
connections with local people and a greater understanding of local culture, social 
and environmental issues (Cape Town Declaration, 2002). In September 2011, an 
important milestone was reached with regard to responsible tourism. A National 
Minimum Standard for Responsible Tourism was launched (NMSRT), by the 
Department of Tourism, after a rigorous process through the South African Bureau 
49 
 
of Standard. The NMSRT consists of 41 criteria, covering the core aspects of 
sustainability and divided into four categories, namely: sustainable operations and 
management; economic; environmental; social and cultural sustainability. The 
NMSRT will be used by tourism organisations such as local tourism organisations 
or sector organisations to create awareness amongst their members about 
responsible tourism, and the document can be used as a benchmark for their 
members to work towards attaining responsible tourism goals. It can also be used 
by tourism businesses and organisations preparing for certification or simply 
evaluating the organisation?s progress in respect of sustainability (Department of 
Tourism, 2011). In this respect, volunteer tourism, has the potential to make a 
positive contribution to sustainable tourism goals (Responsible Tourism, 2009).  
 
This notion is supported by Stoddart and Rogerson (2004) who studied the case of 
Habitat of Humanity South Africa (HFHSA) using the responses from 123 
questionnaires obtained from international volunteer tourists visiting South Africa. 
In terms of its South African operations, HFHSA considers that it offers a method 
for empowering local communities to address their own housing needs. This 
method involves building houses for occupation by families earning low incomes. 
Families are selected for potential inclusion in the project based on criteria, such 
as, the willingness to carry out the required amount of ?sweat equity? and take part 
in a training programme. Additionally and importantly, they must have the capacity 
and willingness to repay the ?mortgage?. Alongside the local communities, the 
volunteer tourists involve themselves in the development work by constructing 
shelters and community gardening. According to Stoddart and Rogerson, this 
enables the volunteer tourists to form links with the local people in a manner that 
enables them to have a tourism experience that incorporates social value. The 
development work undertaken by these volunteers are in locations which are often 
far removed from the scenic and exotic locales enjoyed by tourists generally. 
Hence volunteer tourism supports the tourism development goals of African 
countries by improving the spatial distribution of tourists so that more regions can 
benefit from tourism (Govender and Rogerson, 2009).  Stoddart and Rogerson 
(2004) acknowledge that, although these tourists? overall national contribution is 
minimal, their local contributions are significant and Tourism Concern (2009) 
points out that if volunteer tourism is managed correctly it can be a positive force 
for international development.  
50 
 
 
However, Cousins et al. (2009) argue that volunteer tourism may need to be 
tempered by regulation in order to ensure it is managed correctly. In this respect, 
Tourism Concern (2009), United Kingdom, developed a Code of Practice and audit 
system for companies sending volunteers abroad. However, registration is 
expensive and uptake is minimal amongst South African providers. Recently, in 
South Africa, a similar minded non-profit organisation, called FTTSA (Fair Trade in 
Tourism South Africa), was established to certify South African tourist 
organisations which benefit local communities and economies and which operate 
in ethically, socially and environmentally responsible ways. In 2010, they 
accredited their first two South African based volunteer tourism providers: 
Calabash Tours and Volunteer Africa. However, Deputy Minister Xasa (2010) 
voiced concerns, not only about the lack of a national minimum standard in South 
Africa but also the accreditation process for the tourism certification agencies 
themselves. With regard to the latter, ?the inconsistent application of such 
elements as sustainability criteria by different schemes confuses consumers, 
potentially damaging destination reputation? (p. 56). She stresses that the launch 
of The National Minimum Standard for Responsible Tourism (NMSRT), by the 
Department of Tourism, is a recent effort to address this issue by establishing a 
common understanding of responsible and sustainable tourism amongst tourism 
certification agencies. In this respect, it appears that much collaboration is 
required between FTTSA and the Department of Tourism. 
 
2.2. Tourism in South Africa 
In terms of tourism generally, the government in South Africa has prioritised 
tourism as one of the five economic growth sectors and it has been quoted as the 
?new gold? of the South African economy because the total foreign direct spend of 
tourists has overtaken foreign exchange earnings (South Africa Tourism, 2010a; 
Standard Bank, 2004). Furthermore, tourism?s contribution to GDP has 
outperformed all other sectors in terms of both GDP and job creation (Department 
of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Department of Trade and Industry and 
South Africa Tourism, 2004).  There has been a period of strong growth since 
1990. Prior to this, there was a small domestic market and less than one million 
annual foreign arrivals. By 2009, South Africa received 9.9 million foreign visitors 
(South Africa Tourism, 2010b). Most of the foreign arrivals (75%) come by land 
51 
 
from neighbouring African states to visit family and friends as well as to holiday. A 
smaller percentage comes from overseas (25%) and although the latter constitutes 
a smaller volume, the per capita expenditure is more than African foreign tourists 
(South Africa Tourism, 2010a). Nevertheless, African foreign tourists spent R61.7 
billion in 2009 versus R27.6 billion from Europe, Australasia and the USA 
combined (South Africa Tourism, 2010a). However, despite the financial 
differences, the South African government recognises that the new growth area is 
in the overseas market, not the foreign African market, because South Africa 
already has 69% to 99% of the foreign African market. Yet, South Africa only sits 
at position twenty-six in the global tourism destination rankings (South Africa 
Tourism, 2010a). In the past, South Africa Tourism (2008) depicted South Africa 
as a high-end, low impact destination, a niche, for a few wealthy foreigners; so the 
challenges include making it more affordable as well as opening it to young 
travellers who could return to South Africa at different stages in life. Another 
challenge is to address people?s perceptions of South Africa being unsafe and 
unstable. Furthermore, South Africa Tourism (2008) research revealed that 
overseas foreign tourists are exposed to less authentic cultural experiences than 
they desire. This represents a significant opportunity for South Africa in the light of 
key drivers of outbound markets: the desire to experience another culture.  
 
Supporting this notion, Benson and Seibert (2009) interviewed 80 German tourists 
who visited South Africa in the previous five years and who participated in 
volunteering projects ranging from teaching, working in orphanages or homes for 
the handicapped, to nature conservation. Their results revealed the five most 
important motives were: to experience something different, something new; to 
meet African people; to learn about another country and other cultures; to live in 
another country; and to broaden one?s mind through cultural experiences. Benson 
and Seibert?s (2009) tourists were mainly below 36 years of age, with the majority 
(82%) between 18 and 29. Most participants (79%) had participated for between 
one and three months and were on their gap year between finishing school and 
starting work or higher education. Their volunteer travel patterns indicated that 
most participants (94%) have travelled within South Africa at least once during 
their time as a volunteer with 20% travelling six times or more. These findings 
indicate the potential of volunteer tourism to address some of the key challenges 
put forward by South Africa Tourism (2008), for example, ?products? offering 
52 
 
authentic cultural experiences that appeal to the young traveller in destinations 
outside the traditional tourism routes. Furthermore, the traditional European 
summer/holiday time coincides with South Africa?s lowest month for arrivals 
(June). However, to date there is no mention of volunteer tourism in the tourism 
strategy for South Africa despite the myriad of non-profit and for-profit providers, in 
South Africa and overseas, linking travellers to projects in South Africa, such as, 
the Aviva company used for this study.  
 
Benson and Seibert (2009) and Stoddart and Rogerson (2004) attribute this to the 
fragmented nature of tourism studies undertaken in South Africa, spanning a 
range of alternative tourism topics such as Cultural Tourism (Jansen Van Veuren, 
2001); Gay Tourism (Visser, 2002); Wine Tourism (Preston-Whyte, 2002); 
Ecotourism (Fennell, 2003); Backpacker Tourism (Niggel and Benson, 2007; 
Rogerson, 2007); and project planning for special development initiatives 
(Rogerson, 2001). At this stage, despite the potential of volunteer tourism, it is one 
of the most undeveloped themes in tourism (Wearing, 2001).  
 
2.3. Conclusion of this chapter 
In the light of this overview of tourism in South Africa, if that country wishes to 
integrate volunteer tourism into its tourism strategy and destination marketing, 
then understanding the [volunteer] tourist experience is an essential prerequisite 
(Yoon and Uysal, 2005). Kim and Brown (2010) additionally highlight the 
importance of understanding the type of specific benefits gained by visitors so that 
these benefits can be effectively marketed. The following chapter explores the 
many different angles from which the visitor can be studied. 
53 
 
3. CHAPTER THREE - theoretical approaches: the tourist (self) 
 
 
Chapter three explores the literature on the self as a tourist. It defines the tourist 
and explores the many different angles from which the tourist can be studied, 
including the angle adopted for this study, ranging from ?self? as the driving force 
behind change, as with the experimentalist, experiential and positive psychology 
approaches, to ?environment? and contextual influences using a more social 
constructionist or post-modernism approach to studying the self.  
 
3.1. The international tourist 
The international tourist, for the purposes of this research, is a person who travels 
to and stays in places outside his or her usual environment for not more than one 
consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes? (Cooper et al., 
2005:13).  A person?s ?usual environment? is defined as being 160 kilometres or 
less (World Trade Organisation and United Nations Statistics Division, 1994) and 
tourism is said to be ?international? when ?people visit destinations outside their 
own country?s boundaries? (Cooper et al., 2005:794).   
 
Additional to this definition, however, is the rare notion in tourism research that the 
tourist is an entity, a self with a separate existence (Sin, 2009; Wearing, 2001). 
The tourist self presents an ontological challenge with regard to what constitutes 
self. The concept of self has eluded psychologists, philosophers, poets, artists and 
others for millennia because of its formidable ambiguities. Leary and Tangney 
(2005) state that sometimes the self is used to mean the whole of one?s being, 
including all mental and physical operations; sometimes it refers only to mental 
activity (conscious and unconscious) and excludes the body; sometimes self refers 
to an organising psyche which determines how one thinks, feels and behaves; and 
sometimes self is only a mental construct used to describe observable behavioural 
patterns. The nature of self has been studied from many different angles and in 
tourism the self has been studied as a product of interpersonal and cultural 
processes (see Lepp, 2008; McIntosh and Zahra, 2008; Wearing, 2001). These 
conceptions of the self are theoretically bound and articulated within particular 
perspectives such as the experimental self, the socially constructed self, the 
experiential self (Stevens, 1996) and, more recently, the post modern self. Each 
54 
 
perspective favours certain methods of data collection over others and produces 
different kinds of knowledge. What follows is an overview of some of the 
perspectives and the possible approaches for researching the volunteer tourist. 
 
3.2. Theoretical and methodological approaches to 
studying the tourist 
 
3.2.1. Experimentalist perspective 
The experimentalist perspective explores the self through the individual?s frame of 
consciousness, in other words, each person?s construct system (Kelly, 1955). This 
construct system is used by the individual to make sense of subject matter, a 
process known as cognition (Kelly, 1955; Ryckman, 2008; Stevens, 1996). It is 
manifested in our individual personalities; the more or less stable and enduring 
organisation of a person?s character, temperament, intellect and physique, which 
determines his or her unique adjustment to the environment (Eysenck, 1970). 
Cognition is reported to be influenced by genetics up to around 81% (Whitfield and 
Brandon, 2005). Kelly (1955) explained personality being additionally influenced 
by education and values, all of which depend, at least in part, on the social 
contexts in which people live, highlighting the importance of the role of the 
environment on personality. Kelly?s view therefore suggests that personality is 
more flexible than proposed by Eysenck (1970): Kelly postulated that human 
beings are born in process so the capacity for change underlies his theory. In 
other words, we are all capable of changing or replacing our present interpretation 
of events (Fransella and Dalton, 1990). The subject of personality changeability is 
particularly relevant to this investigation because of the potential impact of 
volunteer tourism on its participants. However, the very idea that personal traits 
are flexible enough to be transformed by brief tourist experiences, yet persistent 
enough to be maintained thereafter is somewhat contradictory (Brookes, 2003). 
 
Personality traits ?tell what (a person) will do when placed in a given situation?, 
Cattell (1965:117-118); they are generally measured using standardised 
questionnaires (Albery et al., 2004). The challenge lies in deciding which traits to 
measure and, therefore, what questionnaire to use. For example, Allport (1961) 
identified common traits (traits shared with the rest of the population) and cardinal 
55 
 
traits which have the greatest influence on our behaviour and are unique to 
individuals; Cattell (1965) used sixteen traits to explain personality. More recently, 
Costa and McCrae (1982) identified five central traits known as the ?Big Five?: 
extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness and openness to 
experience, each containing a further six sub-traits totalling thirty traits. The latter 
two differ from Allport in that they propose that people differ in their personalities 
due to different combinations of traits, rather than that some traits exist in some 
people and not in others. 
 
Investigations underpinned by this perspective are generally undertaken using 
experiments and questionnaires (generally through the use of longitudinal designs) 
to obtain measurable data. The limitations to this perspective can be identified 
from exploring the link between the concept of trait and the self [tourist]. Ryckman 
(2008) posits that the self is the broader more encompassing term: ?Within self we 
find, not only a person?s traits, but his or her habits, needs, interests, skills and so 
forth? (p. 268). In other words, there are other aspects to the tourist than his or her 
traits that are neglected in this perspective. However, in terms of behaviour 
specifically, Allport (1961) comments that traits are central to its understanding. 
 
Returning to the notion of personality changeability, studies contain conflicting 
results. On the one hand, there is little evidence that variance in traits might 
change with time (McCrae, 1993); they are predominantly stable but stability 
estimates are significantly lower prior to age 30 (Costa and McCrae, 1994; 
McCrae and Costa, 2003). Age 30 seems to be the bottom of the ramp of 
measured personality flexibility for most and the closer you are to 30 the less 
change there is. Those over 30 tend to have a correlation between personality 
inventories of about 90% from year to year, possibly because most people are 
supporting themselves and are on consistent career paths (Costa and McCrae, 
1994; McCrae and Costa, 2003). However, teenagers are more in the range of 
50% (Costa and McCrae, 1994; McCrae and Costa, 2003). Maiden, Peterson, 
Caya and Hayslip (2003) conducted a longitudinal study of 74 elderly women with 
a mean age of 80. They were assessed on the three personality traits out of the 
Big Five, that is, neuroticism, extroversion and openness, and were seen to be 
moderately stable on all three traits over time. The lack of change after the age of 
30 may mean that the changes while younger were superficial, to fit into a more 
56 
 
diverse environment where one had less autonomy, or, it could reflect reduced 
mental flexibility (Maiden et al., 2003).  
 
On the other hand, people?s personalities are not set in stone by the age of 30; 
new research suggests that traits are not completely fixed and can be changed 
over time by events in a person?s life (Albery et al., 2004). A US study by 
Srivastava, John, Gosling and Potter (2003) examined the ?Big Five? and found 
that not only do people change after 30, but in some ways they change more. 
Srivastava et al. (2003:1041) found a mixture of different patterns of how people 
change. They stated, ?In particular, people were more responsive and more caring 
[with age]?. The report also noted that in a large sample of adults aged between 21 
and 60 (129,515 people) who completed the Big Five personality questionnaire 
over several time points, conscientiousness and agreeableness increased 
throughout early and middle adulthood at varying rates. Neuroticism declined 
among women but did not change among men. On the subject of gender, Harasty, 
Double, Halliday, Kril and McRitchie (1997) comment that most personality 
researchers agree that there are far greater differences between individuals 
regardless of gender than between men and women. Srivastava et al. (2003) 
concluded that the variety in patterns of change suggests that the Big Five traits 
are complex phenomena subject to a variety of developmental influences and 
therefore not completely independent of the influence of life changing events.  
 
Ardelt (2000) reviewed the findings from 206 sets of results investigating the 
stability of Costa and McCrae?s (1994) Big Five personality traits over time. He 
found that personality tends to be less stable if the time between the tests is large 
(six to seven years); if age at first measurement is below 30 or over 50; if a change 
in individual aspects of personality rather than overall personality is measured, in 
other words, the thirty sub-traits. With regard to time spans between testing, data 
from young adult samples (under 30) suggests that scores are strongly stable 
across short-term testing spans of a few weeks to a few months, with retest 
correlations typically between 50 - 70% (Watson, 2000; Watson and Walker, 
1996). However, Watson and Walker?s studies, using much longer retest intervals 
(six to seven years), have reported more moderate stabilities with correlations 
falling to 30%. Considering all available data, at present it seems likely that there 
57 
 
are continued changes after age 30, but they are small in magnitude (McCrae, 
Terracciano and Khoury, 2007).  
 
Various lines of evidence suggest that major life events exert a significant 
influence only in the short term but that people move back to their pre-existing 
baseline (Myers and Diener, 1995; Suh, Diener and Fujita, 1996; Watson, 2000). 
This raises an important question as to whether changes in traits, amongst 
volunteer tourists, will be temporary or permanent changes. In England, there 
have been some studies which look at longer term impact on volunteers (Hill, 
Russell and Brewis, 2009). Such studies are important because they reveal 
whether the impacts of volunteering can change for participants over time; some 
effects are strongest in the period during and immediately after completing a 
volunteer scheme while others take longer to develop (Anderson, Laguarda and 
Williams, 2007). Moreover, impacts may vary over time for volunteers from 
different social, cultural or ethnic backgrounds. 
 
3.2.2. Social constructionist perspective 
In the psychological tradition, the previous approach explored the self from within, 
whereas the social constructionist perspective examines the context within which 
the self operates, following a more sociological tradition. It therefore explores 
individuals? environments and relationships with ?others? and their influence on the 
self. Hence a person?s sense of self is constructed from the environment and by 
other people in that we are influenced by how others seem to regard and respond 
to us (Stevens, 1996). That, in turn, will depend on how they categorise us, the 
role they place us in and also sometimes on our access to material and other 
resources. So, ?knowing the particular kind of person we are or supposed to be, 
we know what is expected of us, how we should act and react, even how to think 
and feel? (Stevens, 1996:22). This approach also aligns itself to changes in self; 
these are continuous and fluid as we take on new roles, change status, travel and 
submerge ourselves in foreign cultures.   
 
Wearing (2001) used this approach to examine volunteer tourists in the Santa 
Elena Reserve. He found a variety of learning and behavioural changes amongst 
his participants. Skinner (1974), however, stresses that this learning happens in 
conjunction with our unique genetic background which is neglected in this 
58 
 
approach and so too is the self as an agent of change, rather focussing on the 
?other? as agent. This approach tends towards qualitative methods of data 
collection such as personal accounts, observation and case studies, for example, 
Broad (2003); Harlow and Pomfret, (2007); Lepp (2008); McIntosh and Zahra 
(2007); Wearing (2001); Wickens (2009, 2011); and Zahra (2006, 2011). These 
methods are able to explore the wider less tangible benefits of international 
volunteering, such as reflective approach to life, self fulfilment and a greater 
understanding of diversity (Sherraden et al., 2008). However, quantitative methods 
of data collection have also been applied, for example, McGehee et al. (2009); 
Grabowski et al. (2008); and Lough et al. (2009a, 2009b). For both methods, using 
this perspective, the context of the experience is important, providing a broader 
understanding of change in the tourist, such as changes in knowledge or skills, 
values and interests not necessarily identified in the experimentalist approach. 
 
3.2.3. Experiential perspective 
The experiential perspective, in some respects, is similar to the social 
constructionist approach in that the experience becomes the object of study; the 
engagement with the environment and ?others?. However, the experiential 
approach follows psychological tradition with its emphasis on the experiencing 
individual rather than the environment and ?others?; yet, unlike the experimental 
approach, it is not limited by individual construct systems. Rather, it examines the 
experience in terms of its effect on human potential; its ability to help people 
realise their creative potential and their highest and most important goals (Maslow, 
1962; Rogers, 1961; Ryckman, 2008). This approach examines the way people 
relate to the world, their capacity to be aware and to reflect on their experiences; 
the individual being the agent of change. Maslow (1962) posits that people will 
benefit in different ways from their experiences, depending on their needs, 
resulting in different behaviours manifested at the various levels of the hierarchy. 
These needs range from the most basic needs for food, warmth, and shelter, to 
the highest level, the need for self-actualisation7 (refer Maslow, 1970). Maslow?s 
theory of self-actualisation was used by Alexander et al. (2010) to explain 
behavioural changes in vacationers. Some tourists returned from their trip wanting 
to help others, for example, by ?paying monthly donations to Oxfam?, ?giving money 
                                                 
7
  Maslow (1970) defines self-actualisation as the need to realise one?s highest and most important goals (also 
known self-realisation or selfhood); the need to become more and more what one is, to become 
everything that one is capable of becoming.   
 
59 
 
to charities?, and ?taking a more positive approach to staff motivation and service 
delivery?. The explanation for this behaviour was attributed to those tourists 
fulfilling their higher needs; the need to benefit society and the environment rather 
than just themselves. This Maslowian thought was also used by Singh and Singh 
(2004) to describe the motivation for participation amongst their volunteers, in 
projects in the Himalayas; they were motivated by their higher intrinsic need for 
self-actualisation. 
 
Self-actualisation was also explored by Frankl (2004:115): ?being human always 
points, and is directed, to something, or someone other than oneself - be it a 
meaning to fulfil or another human being to encounter. The more one forgets 
himself - by giving himself to a cause to serve or another person to love - the more 
human he is and the more he actualises himself?. This idea of ?giving to others? and 
its role in helping people realise their own potential, is supported by Adler (1969) 
and May (1983). Both Adler and May describe self-actualisation as the actions we 
take that contribute to our growth but also to the betterment of others around us 
and the community. Therefore, cultures and individuals which place value on the 
process of engaging in learning, or other self-expansive activities such as 
volunteering, provide the ingredients that promote change and personal 
development (Pyszczynski, Greenberg and Goldenberg, 2005).  
 
Other than ?growth? benefits, these expansive activities such as volunteering, have 
been shown to cure depression; Frankl (2004) published a study in 1933 which 
showed that unemployment neurosis disappeared in those patients who were 
persuaded to volunteer in youth organisations, adult education and public libraries, 
because they were engaged in a meaningful activity, filling their abundant free 
time. Frankl (2004:9) emphasised the importance of ?finding meaning or purpose? 
and ?taking responsibility? in order to grow and added, ?no man can tell another 
what this purpose is. Each must find out for himself and must accept the 
responsibility that his answer prescribes?. 
 
The experiential approach focuses on personal development and is therefore 
particularly relevant to this study, especially the explanations for this outcome. 
Frankl proposed ?finding purpose? and ?taking responsibility?; however, Pyszczynski 
60 
 
et al. (2005:324) found that ?intrinsic exhilaration? from ?integrative activity?8 coupled 
with the ?boost to self-esteem? provided by ?success? in such endeavours? facilitates 
personal development. Deci and Ryan (2000) added that ?security? and the 
?management of anxiety? are prerequisites for this integration; and insecurity and 
anxiety prevent growth because people cling to the safety of what they already 
know.  ?It is believed that this conflict between the human potentials for creativity 
and fear lies at the heart of what many refer to as the human dilemma: immense 
capacity for growth and change that is often thwarted by our slavish dependence 
on the existing psychological structures that protect our fears? (Pyszczynski et al., 
2005:329). So, human growth is viewed, at least in part, ?as motivated behaviour 
that has both intrinsic9 and extrinsic10 elements that encourage the individual to 
engage in activities that will lead to change? (Pyszczynski et al., 2005). In this 
experiential approach, the methodology shifts from measurement and hypothesis 
testing in the experimental approach to qualitative considerations which capture 
the meaning of human experience. Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000b) 
acknowledge the many significant contributions of humanistic psychologists but 
maintain that the humanistic psychology movement has never been accepted by 
academic psychologists because the research is not replicable, cumulative, 
objective and empirical. This is despite the plethora (more than one hundred) of 
research articles in the Journal of Humanistic Psychology (a high-quality clinical 
psychology journal) and with considerable research backing each (Bohart and 
Greening, 2001).   
 
3.2.4. Positive psychology 
The mainstream psychological approaches to studying the self are concerned with 
curing mental illness, improving normal lives and identifying and nurturing high 
talent (Boniwell, 2006). Mainstream research into the experiences that change 
people include such things as PTSD (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder) following 
rape, sexual and physical abuse, car accidents, fire, experiences of war, receiving 
a serious medical diagnosis and being subjected to invasive painful treatment of 
                                                 
8 Integrative processing of information occurs when one engages in an activity that is just beyond one?s 
current understanding or capacities (Csikszentmihalyi, 1980). 
 
9 Intrinsic motivation is the sense of positive effect or exhilaration that results from the integrative processing 
of information. 
 
10 Extrinsic motivation is the sense of personal value (from others) one gets from success as well as the 
prerequisite feeling of security and safety (Leary and Tangney, 2005). 
 
61 
 
medical problems. These experiences have been found to change behaviour in 
many different ways such as increased depression, expectations that people are 
untrustworthy, unreliable, unhelpful and unpredictable and feelings of 
powerlessness leading to doubts about competence and self-efficacy. The latter 
contribute to dependency, submissiveness, passivity, reduced self-esteem and 
increased neuroticism (Krill, 2008; Lively, 2001; Lubit, 2008). Volunteer tourism 
represents a more proactive rather than reactive catalyst for altering our 
perspectives and subsequently our actions (Clemmons, 2010). In this regard, a 
more recent development is positive psychology which focuses on factors that 
allow individuals and communities to thrive (Boniwell, 2006). In short, it is 
concerned with how to transform people and enhance their potential. It is 
manifested in individuals? levels of: altruism, dutifulness, liberalism, trust, 
assertiveness, self-efficacy, adventurousness and emotionality, as well as well-
 being, flow experiences and knowledge, amongst many others areas (Boniwell, 
2006; Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, 2000a).   
 
Positive psychology is closely aligned with its predecessor, humanism and the 
experiential approach. However, positive psychology methodology lends itself to 
experimental approaches. It therefore favours quantitative methods which are 
replicable, cumulative, objective and empirical (Bohart and Greening, 2001). In this 
regard, it has been criticised for relying on too many correlational studies which 
establish that one thing is reliably associated with another, rather than studies that 
allow conclusions of one thing leading to another ? so-called causality (Boniwell, 
2006). Furthermore, there is a recent call from positive psychologists (refer to Ong 
and Van Dulmen, 2007) for applying a diversity of methods so as to triangulate 
findings.  
 
3.2.5. Post-modern perspective 
Post modernism, like positive psychology, is also a relatively recent approach to 
studying the self. It examines the multiple identities that individuals use to respond 
to a world of multiple demands. Often people find themselves working, playing, 
loving and learning in different social contexts within which it is possible for them 
to take on different identities (Gergen, 1991; Wetherell, 1996). Thus, in this 
approach, the context is crucial to understanding the self because of the plasticity, 
changeability and variability of identity to fit within the context and role (Ryan and 
62 
 
Deci, 2005). This approach therefore differs from the previous perspectives in that 
changes to self in one context may not necessarily transfer to another context, so 
it would be practical to investigate what elements of the volunteer experience are 
carried over into people?s day-to-day lives to determine how much plasticity, 
changeability and variability exists between contexts. Holden (2005:140) attributes 
these changes in identity to post modern life characterised by ?the decline in the 
importance of defining identity and role by social classes?. In the context of 
tourism, the tourist is said to formulate his or her own identity from the different 
cultures through which he or she passes (Holden, 2005; Richards and Wilson, 
2006). Post modernism is also characterised by an increasing desire for altruism 
and self-change (Mustonen, 2006), which arguably reflect people?s increasing 
recognition of, and reaction to, the homogenous nature of traditional tourism 
products and consumer society (Richards and Wilson, 2006). Such a society is 
characterised by very rapid change and disruption in the external world, where 
communities are fragmented, religious beliefs and other ideologies are 
undermined and distantly conceived multimedia communications have continuous 
and unavoidable influences on our realities (Thomas, 1996). The post modern self 
is further characterised, at least in the West, as experiencing boredom, confusion 
and disillusionment; an ?existential vacuum?  (Frankl, 2004), where people 
experience an inner emptiness, a void within themselves which drives them to 
acquire and consume (Cushman, 1990). The results are often ?saturated? selves, 
overfilled with new and often technological manifestations of social life, such as, 
television, newspapers, junk mail and travel (Gergen, 1991). Increased 
consumption, however, is unable to fill the void; it drives people further, creating 
massive and deep social change within our society. This is resulting in a new 
consciousness, the emergence of individualism, fragmented personality and the 
increased emphasis on well-being, personal development, reflexivity (self-
 consciousness), self-actualisation, self expression, and outlets for the vital 
engagement of self in social activities (Baumeister, 1998; Carter and Gilovich, 
2010; Gergen, 1991; Hollinshead, 1997; Ryan and Deci, 2005). McGehee and 
Andereck (2010) offer volunteer tourism as a potential mechanism for satisfying 
these post modern needs and therefore emancipating the self from over-work, 
sensory-overload and a lack of human interconnectedness. The methodology 
generally adopted to investigate the postmodern self is, therefore, more 
interpretative with open-ended investigations tracing the multiple connections 
63 
 
between people and their social worlds (Radley, 1996; Stevens and Wetherall, 
1996). Post modernism, therefore, prioritises the context within which people 
operate and, within tourism, with the minutiae of experience; it is concerned with 
actions, events, and interpretations within the text (Ryan, 1997). So, the samples 
are small because researchers investigate meaning for their participants and, as a 
result, researchers are often participants themselves (Hall, 2004). In this respect, 
the findings are very specific to the context and are unlikely to be generalised to 
other contexts. 
 
3.3. Conclusion of this chapter 
The theoretical underpinnings of the self described in this chapter reflect the many 
lenses through which an individual, the volunteer tourist, can be studied; each lens 
producing different facets of knowledge about the tourist. Some lenses, such as 
the experimentalist self, measure the observable consequences of changes, 
whereas others such as the social constructionist, experiential and postmodern 
lenses, explore the subjective accounts of participants. While accepting that these 
perspectives look differently at the self, they could, nevertheless, be seen as 
complementary, revealing different facets of the individual. So, for this research, it 
would be fruitful to synthesise the approaches. For example, it could be argued 
that measuring change in individual traits of those who have participated in 
volunteer tourism, may not suffice on its own (experimental angle); we should take 
into account the context too and the meaning of the experience to the participants. 
Synthesis, the search for relationships and the complementary basis of the 
different perspectives, is one answer to diversity since all perspectives concur that 
multiple influences are involved in human conduct (Stevens and Wetherall, 1996). 
This view therefore lends itself to a pluralist approach to data collection, in order to 
address the shortcomings of the volunteer tourism literature identified in chapter 
one. The following chapter explains how this method will be achieved and the 
categories of knowledge that will be produced. 
  
64 
 
4. CHAPTER FOUR - methodology: approaches, issues and 
problems 
 
 
Chapter four explores the methodological approaches of different research 
paradigms and explains in greater detail how the researcher went about designing 
and implementing the methodology for this study. In this study, it was necessary to 
draw from different discourses at different points in the research process. The 
multi-paradigm research strategy, using a staged methods approach, is discussed 
in this chapter. The approach consists of three stages: the first, involves using 
grounded theory method for understanding what volunteer tourism is and 
generating a new explanation of volunteer tourism. The second stage uses a 
personality test and focuses on the quantitative measurement of change following 
a volunteer tourism experience; and the third stage is the interpretive 
phenomenological analysis of interviews offering explanations for the change, and 
how change is manifested in people?s everyday lives at home. The sample itself is 
discussed as well as issues of selectivity, validity and reliability of the research; 
reflexivity in the research process; and associated ethical considerations and 
dilemmas.   
 
4.1. The research paradigms 
Analysts have used a range of different approaches to investigate human nature. 
In the case of philosophy, any way of knowing is based on beliefs about what 
kinds of things exist (ontology), what we can know about these things 
(epistemology) and how we can find out about these things (methodology). These 
questions can be addressed in different ways by researchers; the answers reflect 
their philosophical underpinnings and therefore their world view, in other words, 
their set of experiences, beliefs and values which affect the way they perceive 
reality and respond to that perception. Although not always available, the 
transparency of a worldview, paradigm11 or discourse in the research process is 
necessary, and called for, to help the reader evaluate the research process and 
                                                 
11 Thomas Kuhn gave ?paradigm? its contemporary meaning when he adopted it to refer to the set of practices 
that define a scientific discipline. In the social sciences, Michel Foucault defines these specific ways 
of viewing reality as episteme or discourses. Both concepts can be found in social science research 
to refer to the philosophical and theoretical framework of a school or discipline within which 
knowledge is produced. 
65 
 
make judgement about its findings (Crotty, 1998; Zahra and Ryan, 2005). The 
answers to the questions around ontology, epistemology and methodology are 
different for each discourse. The first question is the ontological question and 
whether the researcher believes that reality is to be viewed as external to the 
individual, ?out there?, or the product of individual consciousness, the product of 
one?s mind (Burrell and Morgan, 1979; Denzin and Lincoln, 1998).  
 
The second question, the epistemological question, seeks to identify what is the 
relationship between the knower (the inquirer) and the known (or knowable) 
(Guba, 1990). In other words, what are the origins and nature of knowing and the 
construction of knowledge, and the claims and assumptions that are made about 
what knowledge is (Dalmiya and Alcoff, 1993; Longino, 1990).  
 
The third, the methodological question, tries to answer the question of how the 
inquirer should go about finding knowledge (Guba, 1990; Phillimore and Goodson, 
2004). Phillimore and Goodson (2004:34) summarise these issues: ?knowledge 
production relies upon the ontology of the researcher ? their definition of reality. 
Their epistemology ? what they count as knowledge ? depends on what they want 
to know about, while the kind of knowledge they seek determines their 
methodology?.  
 
Zahra and Ryan (2005) raise two further considerations when investigating human 
nature: the role of values in the research process and assumptions about human 
nature. In other words, do values feed into the research process, or is the research 
process value free? (Lincoln and Guba, 2000).  
 
The other consideration is the definition of human nature and as such is closely 
linked to the ontological and epistemological questions but is, nevertheless, 
conceptually separate (Burrell and Morgan, 1979). Some social scientists hold that 
human beings respond in a mechanistic or deterministic way when they confront 
the external world (Zahra and Ryan, 2005). These social scientists argue that the 
environment conditions human beings. The other view is that human beings have 
?free will?, that they have a choice and a more creative role in shaping the external 
world. How the researchers go about addressing the above questions, 
considerations and the methodology they adopt will incline them to a particular 
66 
 
methodology or way in which to gather data and produce or construct knowledge. 
The answers also provide an indication as to where researchers situate 
themselves within the discourses. What follows is an explanation of the two major 
schools, positivist and interpretative discourses, because of their relevance to the 
multi-paradigmatic approach of this research.  
 
4.1.1. Positivist inquiry 
Ontologically, positivists assume that an independent reality exists. This reality is 
outside the researcher, and the natural world is believed to be organised by 
universal truths and laws of causal relationships, without much regard to 
contextual influences (see Albery et al., 2004; Jennings, 2001; Zahra and Ryan, 
2005; Hollinshead, 2004); the subject matter may be observed and measured 
similarly here, there and everywhere. The independence of the researcher and 
phenomena allows the researcher to observe and study the object without 
influencing or affecting it. Likewise, this independent attribute assumes that the 
object observed does not influence the researcher, who sustains an independent 
stance (Phillimore and Goodson, 2004). Any interaction between the researcher 
and what is researched is deemed to threaten the validity of the research and 
therefore research strategies must be followed to reduce or eliminate these threats 
and hence they are usually technical in nature. The objective is to remove values 
and biases from influencing outcomes so that the research can be replicated as 
long as set procedures are closely followed. Consequently, data are examined as 
to their reliability and replicability (Albery et al., 2004; Hollinshead, 2004).  
 
Positivists assume that human behaviour is determined by the situation or 
environment within which the person is located (Hollinshead, 2004). The research 
methodology for the positivist generally starts with a hypothesis deduced by 
theory, which is then empirically tested and verified; yielding clean, tidy, non 
complex classifications of lived reality (Albery et al., 2004; Guba and Lincoln, 
1998; Hollinshead, 2004; Jennings, 2001; Zahra and Ryan, 2005). Observed 
measurements of key variables thus detail the world as it actually exists, reflecting 
what is typical rather than what may emerge (Hollinshead, 2004). In other words, 
positivistic research is generalised from the subjectivities of a select group of 
people (Goodson and Phillimore, 2004). Underlying the positive paradigm is the 
view that objective enquiry is capable of providing true exploratory and predictive 
67 
 
knowledge of external reality (Albery et al., 2004; Burrell and Morgan, 1979). This 
assumes that social science theories can be assessed by reference to empirical 
evidence in the form of ?results? firmly concluded rather than ?findings? tentatively 
held. 
 
4.1.2. Interpretative inquiry 
The ontological basis for interpretivists is not objective reality ?out there? but 
multiple subjective mental constructions (Albery et al., 2004; Guba and Lincoln, 
1998), where the construction of reality comes from the mind and can change over 
time. This relativism can lead to conflicting social realities not only between 
researchers and informant but also for individual researchers if their constructs 
change as they become more informed and experienced over time (Zahra and 
Ryan, 2005). Researchers in the interpretative discourse need to understand the 
social world as it is, at the level of subjective experience. They seek explanations 
within the framework of participants as opposed to observers of action. 
Researchers thus become part of the actors so that they can understand ?better? 
the subjective experience of the individuals involved. This creates a level of 
complexity because the researcher is investigating a range of views and 
perspectives, which often conflict with each other, reflecting the complex and 
problematic nature of human behaviour (Burrell and Morgan, 1979). Guba and 
Lincoln (1998) claim that for the interpretative discourse there is no clear 
distinction between the ontological basis and the epistemological basis. There is 
no distinction in how the world is perceived by the researcher and the relationship 
between the researcher and the subject matter being researched. Therefore, the 
values of the researcher are increasingly seen as an active force that determines 
the way knowledge is obtained (Zahra and Ryan, 2005). This approach requires a 
reflexive examination of the influence of the values of the researcher on the 
research process, and the assumptions that they make in producing what they 
regard as knowledge (Locke, 2001).  
 
In terms of the methods employed to study a particular phenomenon, 
interpretivists do not attempt to use scientific methods to identify causal 
relationships, rather they prefer methods which allow them to get inside the 
phenomenon and understand it from within by using methods such as participant 
observation, case studies, personal accounts, focus groups and in-depth 
68 
 
interviewing. These researchers often undertake an inductive approach to their 
research by getting involved with the data or the participants in order to develop 
explanations, which are then used as the basis for ?theory? building (Locke, 2001).  
 
4.2. Methodological justification 
In this study, it was necessary to draw from both discourses at different points in 
the research process, and for different reasons. Prior to being able to investigate 
the effect of volunteer tourism on the tourist, it was first necessary to develop a 
robust understanding of the volunteer tourism phenomenon and to clarify the 
concepts within it and the nature of the relationships between these concepts. The 
method chosen for this first stage of the investigation was grounded theory 
because of its appropriateness for collecting data in a new area of research (Allan, 
2003; Bakir and Bakir, 2006; Dick, 2005; Patton, 1990). It was able to generate 
theory (Locke, 2001). As the aim of this grounded theory study is to understand 
the term volunteer tourism, the researcher followed a more interpretative line of 
inquiry. She immersed herself in the data in order to develop explanations for the 
phenomenon and, in so doing, acknowledges that human values intrude on the 
coding process. Hence the values of the researcher are seen as an active force in 
determining the outcome. 
 
Once the phenomenon of volunteer tourism was more fully understood, the 
researcher chose a standardised personality inventory to determine whether, and 
how, an international volunteer tourism experience could change the participating 
tourists. At this second stage of the research process, the researcher followed a 
positivist line of inquiry, taking an independent stance by remaining detached from 
the participants. The participants went on-line to complete the personality 
inventory, thereafter, the researcher collated and analysed the results remotely, 
thus studying the responses without influencing or affecting them. Therefore, the 
research can be replicated as long as set procedures are closely followed.  
Furthermore, this method produced clean, tidy, classifications, by means of traits, 
of changes to the volunteer tourists. However, a fundamental weakness with this 
type of inquiry is its inability to answer questions around meaning. For instance, 
what aspects of the tourism experience explained the changes in the participants, 
and what are those participants doing differently in their day-to-day lives as a 
result. Thus, in an attempt to understand more about the experience, in the third 
69 
 
stage, in-depth structured personal interviews were carried out with the 
participants based on the results of the personality inventory and were analysed 
using interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA). IPA is particularly suitable 
where one is concerned with understanding something about change (Higginson 
and Mansell, 2008; Smith and Osborn, 2004). 
   
A staged methods approach has been shown to help create a more complete 
picture of reality (Feyerabend, 1975). It has additionally been used to appeal to 
broader audiences (Denzin, 1989; Fielding and Fielding, 1986; Flick, 1992; Hedge, 
Borman and Birkeland, 2001). The following section discusses this multi-
 paradigmatic, staged methods approach. 
 
4.3. Multiple paradigm, staged methods approach 
There are arguments for using a multiple paradigm, staged methods approach. 
Burrell and Morgan (1979) argue that inter-paradigmatic shifts are difficult and 
rare; in contrast, Lincoln and Guba (2000:164) state that ?various paradigms are 
beginning to ?interbreed? such that two theorists previously thought to be in 
irreconcilable conflict may now appear, under different theoretical rubric, to be 
informing one another?s arguments?. Feyerabend (1975) also argues for a multi-
 paradigmatic approach as ?the world we want to explore is a largely unknown 
entity and no one methodology can provide all the answers? (p.175). He advises 
researchers to maintain open options to create more opportunities for discovering 
not only a few isolated facts, but also perhaps more profound ?truths?. Faulkner 
and Russell (1997) see that the adoption of paradigms according to their 
usefulness in specific situations as a pragmatic and potentially productive 
approach.  
 
In support of staged methods, Creswell, Plano Clark, Gutmann and Hanson (2003) 
and Meetoo and Temple (2003) argue that it is possible to move from one 
paradigm to another if the stages are clear and transparent in the research 
process, but this movement does present challenges for the researcher in terms of 
how to use and link the various aspects of different paradigms in one research 
investigation (Zahra and Ryan, 2005). Similarly, Denzin and Lincoln (1994) urge 
the researcher to be a bricoleur, to enter into a dialogue with multi-approaches, 
theories, practices and methods (see also Jamal and Hollinshead, 2001). This 
70 
 
bricoleur approach can be advantageous because of its ability to deal with 
dynamic situations and provide a broader understanding of the substantive area 
being studied (see, for example, the staged methods tourism research carried out 
by Briedenhann, 2010; Briedenhann and Wickens, 2003; Dantas, Ferreira, Oliveira 
and Aires, 2010). Nevertheless, Potter and Wetherall (1987) point out that each 
paradigm captures different kinds of information making it difficult, on the basis of 
their combination, to reach a coherent result, and this criticism is exacerbated in 
interdisciplinary research (see Olsen, 2004; Silverman, 1993) especially where 
different epistemologies are brought together (Meetoo and Temple, 2003; Patton, 
1990).  
 
In this study, staged methods are used to address different aspects of the 
research question; each method complements/adds to the next rather than 
validates it. This study?s approach follows Kelle?s (2001) suggestion of using each 
method for a specific purpose, drawing from each one?s strengths, with attention 
paid individually to validity and reliability. This allows the results to stand alone, or 
link sequentially to provide a more complete picture of reality.    
 
4.4. The research design 
The staged methods employed for this research are: grounded theory to explore 
the phenomenon of volunteer tourism; a personality inventory (a quantitative 
method) to identify the impacts of volunteer tourism on the tourists; and structured, 
web-based, personal interviews analysed using the interpretive phenomenological 
analysis (IPA) method (a qualitative method) for gaining insight into these impacts. 
Each will be discussed in turn. The staged design is visually presented in Figure 1. 
 
  
71 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 1. A visual representation of the staged design. 
 
 
  
Stage two:  
Personality Inventory 
Data Collection 
 
Personality Inventory 
Data Analysis and 
Discussion of Results 
 
 
Interviews 
Data Analysis and 
Discussion of Findings 
 
Interpretation and 
Conclusion 
Volunteers 
Control Group 
Volunteering 
Day-to-day life 
Measurement 
Measurement 
Measurement 
Stage one:  
Grounded Theory  
Data Collection 
 
Grounded Theory  
Data Analysis and 
Discussion of Findings 
 
Stage three: 
Interviews 
Data Collection 
 
72 
 
4.5. The methods employed for this research: an 
overview 
 
4.5.1. Stage one: grounded theory 
The strength of grounded theory is its ability to provide a method for generating a 
new explanation of volunteer tourism through distinct and rigorous procedures.   
There is evidence of grounded theory use in volunteer tourism research (see 
Lepp, 2009; McIntosh and Zahra, 2007; Zahra, 2006). However, these studies do 
not appear to adopt the full grounded theory technique; they borrow some of its 
analytical aspects to help discover more about the experiences of volunteer 
tourists. 
 
Grounded theory stresses the emergence of theory by data conceptualisation 
rather than descriptions of data generated (Glaser, 1992). It is viewed as a general 
method which can use any form of data because it is not unit bound; hence its 
ability to generate substantive theory and transcend the time, place and people of 
any unit sampled (Glaser, 2001). The resulting theory is evaluated in terms of its 
fit, relevance, workability and easy modifiability (Glaser, 2001). For this research, 
Glaser?s (1992) version of grounded theory is used. In this version, the data are 
reviewed, coded, compared and analysed, sentence by sentence, in an ongoing 
process whose aim is to allow relevant themes to emerge. The emerged themes 
are categorised, categories are related to each other and, along with their 
properties create the core category. Data are collected until such a time that any 
new data add nothing to what already has been discovered, whereupon a 
theoretical saturation is said to have been achieved. During data collection, any 
ideas, thoughts, connections, theory or questions that emerge, are recorded as 
memos by way of pocket cards (Glaser, 1998; Glaser and Strauss, 1967). The 
analysed data (the categories), along with the memos, are then sorted into a 
sequence such that a structure emerges which can then be described in words 
(refer to Glaser, 1993, for examples). This process produces a theory and, in this 
case, a new explanation of volunteer tourism. This rigorous procedure is essential 
for producing research that is credible and dependable. 
  
73 
 
Glaser?s approach was used over Strauss and Corbin?s (1990; 1998) for its more 
intuitive and less complex analysis and coding techniques. It was also easier to 
understand and visualise. Strauss and Corbin follow a more complex approach 
involving the systematic analysis of causes, context and consequences for every 
emerging theme (see Bakir and Bakir, 2006). This potentially produces a large 
quantity of unnecessary information irrelevant to the research problem. 
Additionally, the resulting descriptions are ?forced? rather than being allowed to 
emerge from the data (Glaser, 1992).  
 
Grounded theory methodology was preferred over other methods because of its 
approach to ?all is? data. One can use any form of data because it is not unit 
bound; hence its ability to generate substantive theory. This study called upon 
data from a variety of sources, including: web-based questionnaires supplemented 
by testimonials from volunteer tourists, academic literature, articles, general 
correspondence, web sites, talk shows, blogs and media stories. Hence data were 
collected on people?s perceptions of volunteer tourism, from indirect experiences 
of family members and volunteer tourism providers, and the experiences of the 
volunteer tourists themselves. These data sources are potentially just as valuable 
for generating theory (Glaser and Strauss, 1967). A detailed account of the data 
collection process and a description of the data analysis process are presented 
later. 
 
4.5.2. Stage two: personality inventories 
Personality tests focus on the quantitative measurement of traits, or identifiable 
characteristics which define a person (Ong and Van Dulmen, 2007; Solomon, 
1996). They are often used to measure traits (Albery et al., 2004) and as such they 
will be adopted for this research. These tests involve questions administered to 
individuals who are asked to rate their own actions or feelings in set situations. For 
example, an individual might be given the following statement: ?Love to help 
others? and be asked to choose a statement which best applies to them. The 
options might be: (a) Very Inaccurate, (b) Moderately Inaccurate, (c) Neither 
Inaccurate or Accurate, (d) Moderately Accurate, and (e) Very Accurate. This is an 
example of a self-report personality inventory. It provides a convenient way of 
getting a snapshot of a person?s position at a given moment in time (Albery et al., 
2004). 
74 
 
All modern scientifically constructed personality tests are built on a trait 
measurement system with applications ranging from short listing and selecting 
candidates for jobs (Huczynski and Buchanan, 1991); predicting quality of life in 
patients undergoing cancer treatment (Allison, Giuchard and Gilian, 2000);  
predicting delinquency (Mak, Heaven and Rummery, 2003); predicting types of 
criminal behaviour (Nussbaum, Collins, Cutler, Zimmerman and Jaques, 2002); to 
predicting personal growth (Furnham and Drakeley, 2000; Rubin, 1981).  
  
In the tourism literature, Bailey and Russell (2010) measured traits in their study of 
interpersonal growth amongst volunteer tourists, and the tourism industry, for 
example hotels, use trait measurement to recruit the ?right? people (e.g. Yildiz, 
Unguren and Polat, 2009).  
 
The IPIP-NEO personality inventory represents the most commonly used 
personality framework in the current psychological literature (Brand and Egan, 
1989; Egan, Deary and Austin, 2000; Wiggins and Trapnell, 1997). The inventory 
is based on an IPIP inventory developed by Goldberg (1999) and consists of 120 
items that assess the domain constructs of the Five-Factor Model of personality as 
expressed in Costa and McCrae?s (1992) revised NEO personality inventory 
(NEO-PI-R), that is, openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, 
agreeableness and neuroticism. The IPIP-NEO personality inventory has been 
used in tourism and leisure research: to relate personality factors to placebo 
responsive participants in a 40km laboratory cycling performance test (Beedie, 
Foad and Coleman, 2008); to determine the role of personality in job stress and 
employee burnout (Kim, Shin and Umbreit, 2007); to establish whether consumer-
 generated media is created by certain travellers who share particular personality 
traits (Yoo and Gretzel, 2010) and to investigate the role that static caravans play 
within second home consumerism (Fowler, 2009). So, collectively, along with the 
advice sought from three prominent psychologists12, it was the natural choice for 
this research project. It covers all the major dimensions of personality 
comprehensively and it is very stable over long periods of time (Johnson, 2007). 
Furthermore, unlike its commercial ?parent? (the NEO-PI-R) it has no restrictions or 
                                                 
12 Duncan Cartwright is the Associate Professor and Head of the Department of Applied Psychology at the 
University of Kwazulu Natal, South Africa. Charles Malcolm is the Head of Psychology at the 
University of the Western Cape, South Africa. John Johnson is a Professor of Psychology at the 
Pennsylvania State University, USA. 
 
75 
 
conditions on its use and there are no costs for using it. It has also been translated 
and evaluated in many different languages and cultures and the test-retest 
reliability is good (Johnson, 2007; McCrae and Costa, 1983).  
 
The IPIP-NEO personality inventory addresses the problem, highlighted in the 
aims of this research; of some volunteers being unable articulate the specific 
benefits of the volunteer tourism experience. Furthermore, it produces measurable 
and tangible results that can, thereafter, be validated by the respondents and 
enriched through other methods such as in-depth personal interviews. All these 
reasons, coupled with the fact that the researcher found the IPIP-NEO simple and 
easy to use, administer and score, made it the preferred tool. Using this 
standardised questionnaire, 15 traits were measured, namely, anxiety, depression, 
vulnerability, assertiveness, action, artistic interests, emotionality, 
adventurousness, intellect, liberalism, trust, altruism, self-efficacy, dutifulness, and 
cautiousness. These traits are defined in Appendix 1 and summarised in Table 7. 
 
 
  
76 
 
Table 7. The definitions of the 15 personality traits measured (summary) 
Anxiety ? The "fight-or-flight" system of the brain of anxious individuals is too easily and 
too often engaged. Therefore, people who are high in anxiety often feel as if something 
dangerous is about to happen. They may be afraid of specific situations or be just 
generally fearful. They feel tense, jittery, and nervous. Persons low in anxiety are 
generally calm and fearless.  
Trust ? A person with high trust assumes that most people are fair, honest, and have 
good intentions. Persons low in trust see others as selfish, devious, and potentially 
dangerous.  
Self Efficacy ? Self-Efficacy describes confidence in one's ability to accomplish things. 
High scorers believe they have the common sense, drive and self-control necessary for 
achieving success. Low scorers do not feel effective, and may have a sense that they are 
not in control of their lives.  
Artistic Interests ? High scorers on this scale love beauty, both in art and in nature. They 
become easily involved and absorbed in artistic and natural events. They are neither 
necessarily artistically trained nor talented, although many will be. The defining features of 
this scale are interest in, and appreciation of natural and artificial beauty. Low scorers lack 
aesthetic sensitivity and interest in the arts.  
Depression ? This scale measures the tendency to feel sad, dejected, and discouraged. 
High scorers lack energy and have difficult initiating activities. Low scorers tend to be free 
from these depressive feelings.  
Assertiveness ? High scorers in assertiveness like to speak out, take charge and direct 
the activities of others. They tend to be leaders in groups. Low scorers tend not to talk 
much and let others control the activities of groups.  
Emotionality ? Persons high on emotionality have good access to and awareness of their 
own feelings. Low scorers are less aware of their feelings and tend not to express their 
emotions openly.  
Altruism ? Altruistic people find helping other people genuinely rewarding. Consequently, 
they are generally willing to assist those who are in need. Altruistic people find that doing 
things for others is a form of self-fulfilment rather than self-sacrifice. Low scorers on this 
scale do not particularly like helping those in need. Requests for help feel like an 
imposition rather than an opportunity for self-fulfilment.  
Dutifulness ? This scale reflects the strength of a person's sense of duty and obligation. 
Those who score high on this scale have a strong sense of moral obligation. Low scorers 
find contracts, rules and regulations overly confining. They are likely to be seen as 
unreliable or even irresponsible.  
Activity Level ? Active individuals lead fast-paced, busy lives. They move about quickly, 
energetically and vigorously, and they are involved in many activities. People who score 
77 
 
low on this scale follow a slower and more leisurely, relaxed pace.  
Adventurousness ? High scorers on adventurousness are eager to try new activities, 
travel to foreign lands and experience different things. They find familiarity and routine 
boring, and will take a new route home just because it is different. Low scorers tend to feel 
uncomfortable with change and prefer familiar routines.  
Intellect ? Intellect and artistic interests are the two most important, central aspects of 
openness to experience. High scorers on Intellect love to play with ideas. They are open-
 minded to new and unusual ideas and like to debate intellectual issues. They enjoy 
riddles, puzzles, and brain teasers. Low scorers on Intellect prefer dealing with people or 
things rather than ideas. They regard intellectual exercises as a waste of time. Intellect 
should not be equated with intelligence. Intellect is an intellectual style, not an intellectual 
ability, although high scorers on Intellect score slightly higher than low-Intellect individuals 
on standardized intelligence tests.  
Vulnerability ? High scorers on vulnerability experience panic, confusion and 
helplessness when under pressure or stress. Low scorers feel more poised, confident and 
clear-thinking when stressed.  
Liberalism ? Psychological liberalism refers to a readiness to challenge authority, 
convention and traditional values. In its most extreme form, psychological liberalism can 
even represent outright hostility toward rules, sympathy for law-breakers and love of 
ambiguity, chaos and disorder. Psychological conservatives prefer the security and 
stability brought by conformity to tradition. Psychological liberalism and conservatism are 
not identical to political affiliation, but certainly incline individuals toward certain political 
parties.  
Cautiousness ? Cautiousness describes the disposition to think through possibilities 
before acting. High scorers on the cautiousness scale take their time when making 
decisions. Low scorers often say or do first thing that comes to mind without deliberating 
alternatives and the probable consequences.  
Source: http://ipip.ori.org 
 
 
Although not as common as the IPIP-NEO, there are other personality 
questionnaires available, such as, the ?50 Big-Five Facet Marker?. However, the 
traits they measure were not all relevant to the research. The decision around 
which traits were considered relevant, and which were not, is discussed below. 
 
It is acknowledged that there are problems with personality inventories such as 
capturing only specific types of data; in this case, it only measures traits ignoring 
all those other areas subject to change such as a person?s skills, abilities, 
78 
 
capabilities, interests, values, needs and others. Furthermore, if people feel they 
are being judged, they may amend their answers accordingly to show themselves 
in a more positive light, a phenomenon known as social desirability (Albery et al., 
2004). Another problem is mood on the day and environmental influences, 
affecting respondents? answers (Albery et al., 2004). Also what people say and 
what they do may be different and therefore a measure derived from what people 
say they do may not be representative of their behaviour (Flanagan, 1995). 
Controversy also exists over the malleability of personality traits discussed earlier 
in the literature review. 
 
With regard to the IPIP-NEO Personality Inventory, there is a 300-item version and 
a shorter 120-item version. The latter is designed to take 15 rather than 40 
minutes to administer. The difference between the versions is in the number of 
questions per trait (ten versus four questions) but all traits are still accounted for in 
the shorter version. 
  
The 120-item IPIP-NEO was chosen; however, it was further shortened to a 60-
 item version, measuring half of the traits contained in the 120-item version, to 
increase response rates. The pilot study feed-back was such that even 15 minutes 
was too long to complete the personality inventory. The idea of shortening the 
IPIP-NEO is common practice and ?researchers often make changes in the 
instruments to adapt them to their own situations? (Solomon, 1996:233). For 
example, Bailey and Russell (2010) used an abbreviated 12-item version of the 
NEO-PI personality inventory and Wilson and Musick (2000) used an edited 
version of the Epidemiological Depression Scale. It must be noted, however, that 
these changes undermine the validity of the measures and reduce the 
comparability of the results across samples. This problem was discussed with 
Professor Johnson13, who created the scoring and narrative routines for the 
original IPIP-NEO and supplied the researcher with the survey questions for the 
60-item version. He said ?the idea of reducing the 120-item version to a 60-item 
version was workable as long as the researcher retained a minimum of four 
questions per trait?. The dilemma would be around which fifteen traits to include 
                                                 
13 John Johnson (Professor of Psychology, Pennsylvania State University, USA) was the publicised point of 
contact for questions relating to the NEO Personality Inventory. He was contacted on the 11.06.08 
and he confirmed that the idea of reducing the 120-item to 60-items would be reliable as long as the 
researcher retained four questions per trait. He can be contacted on: j5j@psu.edu. 
 
79 
 
and which to exclude out of the original thirty presented in the 120-item version, 
Appendix 1. The 15 traits chosen were based on the findings of a study conducted 
by the researcher in 2007 investigating the impact of ordinary vacation travel on 
the tourist (see also Alexander et al., 2010). The relevance of these fifteen traits to 
change and personal development have also been noted by many academics 
(refer to Allport, 1961; Baumeister and Vohs, 2005; Frankl, 2004; Kegan, 1982; 
Keyes and Lopez, 2005; Locke, 2005; Maddux, 2005; Maslow, 1993; May, 1975; 
Rogers, 1975; Seligman, 2005). In this study a decision was made to use the trait 
?depression? rather than the more frequently occurring ?anger? trait, identified in the 
study by Alexander et al., 2010, because ?depression? is used to measure the 
effectiveness of well-being interventions and government initiatives that send 
volunteers abroad (Fava, 1999; Machin, 2008). 
 
A 60-item (15 traits multiplied by 4 questions) personality inventory was thus 
produced, Appendix 2, which took just seven minutes to complete through the 
bespoke web-site. This personality inventory could then be administered to 
volunteers before they left home and within four weeks of returning. The 
personality inventory was scored using a 5-point scale, ranging from Very 
Inaccurate (a) to Very Accurate (e).  
 
In this particular piece of research a control group was also measured to improve 
the validity of the results as part of the scientific method by eliminating some 
alternate explanations of the results (Clegg, 1990; Johnson and Besselsen, 2002); 
in this study?s case, day-to-day life. The control group did not undertake volunteer 
tourism; instead, they lived their day-to-day lives including an annual vacation. The 
use of a non-volunteer comparison group is novel in volunteer tourism research. 
  
The personality inventory served as a starting point for identifying changes to the 
tourist following a volunteer tourism experience. A detailed account of the sample, 
and the data collection and analysis process, are presented later. 
 
  
80 
 
4.5.3. Stage three: interpretative phenomenological analysis of 
interviews 
The next stage in the research design involved understanding the meaning of 
those changes for the individuals concerned. 
 
The web-based interview 
As the sampling unit was dispersed around the world, a web-based option, in the 
form of structured email interviews, appeared to be the most practical method to 
capture data. Although personal interviews in volunteer tourism research are 
common place, a review of the literature revealed that a web-based interview, via 
email, is not. The web has mainly been used for questionnaire surveys (e.g. Bailey 
and Russell, 2010; McGehee et al., 2009; Benson and Seibert, 2009). In a web-
 based interview, as with a face to face interview, two people are talking together 
with a common purpose. There is a dialogue between the researcher and the 
participant.  However, in email versus phone interviews or face to face, there is a 
greater time-lag between question/thought and answer/response, and this 
provided the recipient flexibility for responding, and time to think about the 
questions before answering. The scripts were written by the interviewee and 
therefore no transcribing was required, saving time. A further advantage is that 
email interviews may reduce social desirability bias: interviewees answering the 
questions in such a way as to show them in a positive light and interview reactivity, 
such as, interviewer intrusion on the interview process because the interview may 
be considered more impersonal. However, there is the difficulty of checking the 
demeanour of the interviewee for signs of distress. This is an important ethical 
consideration in some research projects.  
 
For this research, the personal interviews took the form of a discussion around two 
open-ended questions (described later), their aim was to trigger an on-line 
discussion around the experiences the volunteers think may have led to the 
changes and what they are doing differently when they return home. The volunteer 
tourists were additionally asked six open-ended questions about the cost of their 
trip, length of stay, proportion of time spent on volunteer work, how they spent the 
rest of their time, and questions about their perception of international volunteering 
and whether they would participate in a similar project again. The answers 
81 
 
provided information about the context of the volunteer?s trip and volunteer tourism 
generally. 
 
Analysis of the interviews 
The interview scripts were analysed using interpretative phenomenological 
analysis (IPA). This is a qualitative method developed specifically for psychology 
research and influenced by hermeneutics, phenomenology (Smith, 2008) and 
symbolic interactionism (Meek, 2007). IPA attempts to explore/understand/make 
sense of the subjective meanings of events/experiences/states of the individual 
participants (Smith and Osborn, 2004). It recognises that this cannot be done 
without interpretative work, in the form of thematic analysis of the data, to make 
sense of what the participant is thinking (Meek, 2007; Mitchie, Smith, 
Heaversedge and Read, 1999; Reid, Flowers and Larkin, 2005; Shaw, 2001; 
Smith and Osborn, 2004; Smith, 2008).  
 
The aim of the IPA for this research was to understand what volunteers think 
about their volunteer tourism experiences (Smith and Osborn, 2004): what may 
have triggered their change, and the effects of those changes in their daily lives. 
IPA was the preferred method because of its suitability where one is concerned 
with understanding something about process and change (Higginson and Mansell, 
2008; Smith and Osborn, 2004).    
 
IPA has not been used before as a method of analysis in volunteer tourism 
research. The types of analyses that have been used include: content analysis 
(Cousins et al., 2009; Zahra and McIntosh, 2007); Richie and Spencer?s (1994) 
framework (Harlow and Pomfret, 2007); constant comparative analysis borrowed 
from grounded theory (Lepp, 2009; McIntosh and Zahra, 2007; Zahra, 2006); 
discourse analysis (McGehee and Santos, 2005) and thematic analysis (Wearing, 
2001). In contrast to content analysis, for example, IPA is a ?bottom-up? approach 
rather than ?top-down?. Content analysis systematically identifies frequencies in the 
data and compresses these into themes driven from theory and hypotheses 
(Stemler, 2001). However, IPA, although a similarly structured step-by-step 
process, involves identifying emerging themes from the data (Meek, 2007; Reid et 
al., 2005) and discovering connections between data to establish categories and 
eventually master categories. So, IPA is a bottom-up approach, grounded in the 
82 
 
actual experiences of the participants (Reid et al., 2005). In this respect, it is 
similar to grounded theory. However, the aim of grounded theory is to develop 
theory, whereas IPA is concerned with developing an understanding of individual 
experiences (Shaw, 2001). Therefore, in contrast to grounded theory which 
analyses the largest possible range of data (Glaser and Strauss, 1967), IPA can 
be used to analyse an individual case (see Meek?s, 2007, case study of a Gypsy-
 Traveller).  
 
In terms of judging IPA?s validity and reliability, its validity is anchored in the 
participants? accounts and its reliability demonstrated by the transparency of the 
interpretation of those accounts within the findings (Smith and Osborn, 2004).  
   
4.6. Sampling theory 
For the grounded theory, one is unlikely to know how many subjects will be 
involved prior to an investigation. The sample size is determined by theoretical 
saturation of the data. Glaser and Strauss (1967) advise researchers to sample 
until theoretical saturation of each category is achieved, where no new relevant 
data emerge. So, sampling is controlled by the emerging theory (Glaser, 1992). In 
theoretical sampling the researcher selects, on analytical grounds, what data to 
collect next and where to collect them from, based on the formed concepts. In 
other words, the researcher learns which categories require attention and which 
ones can be dropped.  
 
In quantitative methods of sampling, not only are researchers working with a 
fraction of the information theoretically available but also the researcher draws a 
sample from a defined population (Clegg, 1990). The skill with which a researcher 
selects a sample and its size, will determine just how accurately one can make 
generalised statements about the population from which it is drawn (Albery et al., 
2004; Clegg, 1990; Flanagan, 1995).  
 
In qualitative methods, inferences are not generally made about the population on 
which the sample is based, because the researcher is not looking to make 
generalisations, rather the researcher is trying to understand the social world as it 
83 
 
is, at the level of subjective experience, meanings and contexts.  The following 
section discusses the samples used for this research. 
 
4.6.1. The sample and issues of selectivity 
The following two samples were used for all three stages of this study: the 
volunteer tourists and the control group; each of these samples is discussed in 
turn below. Additionally, for stage one (the grounded theory), the sample data 
were supplemented by testimonials from volunteer tourists, academic literature, 
articles, general correspondence, web sites, talk shows, blogs and media stories.  
 
The volunteer tourists 
All three stages of this study used the same volunteer sample (Albery et al., 2004), 
consisting of 60 participants, who put themselves forward. The sample was made 
up of 10 men (17%) and 50 women (83%). There were 44 (73%) 16-29 years of 
age and 16 (27%) 30+ years. The participants were from many countries including 
the United Kingdom, USA, Europe, Australia, New Zealand and Canada. They had 
booked their international volunteering trip through Aviva, a Cape Town provider. 
Aviva was recommended by Cape Town Tourism and was willing to support the 
research. The Aviva organisation is registered as a Gold Corporate member of the 
Volunteer Centre, which is affiliated to the International Association of Volunteer 
Effort (IAVE) and the United Nations Volunteers (UNV). A South African provider 
was chosen because South Africa rates as one of the top 10 countries where 
travellers want to volunteer (Gecko et al., 2009; Lasso Communications, 2009), 
and, the researcher is a dual national (British and South African) living primarily in 
Cape Town. So, it was an ideal destination to research. 
 
Aviva provided the link between the volunteer tourists and the data collection web-
 site www.bucksresearch.org.uk via their on-line booking confirmation. Additional 
providers were ruled out because of the potential effect in confounding variables, 
where any changes to the volunteers could be attributed to the type of provider 
rather than the volunteering experience itself. As a non-random sample was used, 
the data collected and the findings are not representative of volunteer tourists 
generally. 
  
84 
 
The control group 
As for the volunteer tourists, the same control group were used for all three stages 
of this study. Fifty people (30, age 30+ and 20, age 16-29 years; 18 males and 32 
females) were selected as a control group through opportunity sampling, where 
people were willing to take part in the research when asked rather than 
volunteering to participate (Albery et al., 2004). This number was later reduced 
randomly (by deselecting every other +30 years of age) to 35 people (10, age 30+ 
and 25 age 16-29; seven men and 28 women) in order to better match the control 
group to the volunteer participants on age. The selection of the control group 
involved some snowballing (friends of colleagues and friends) which could have 
potentially introduced bias in the sample, particularly, if people were friends having 
certain things in common. The resulting sample eventually contained a mixture of 
colleagues, friends, friends of friends and family members and their friends who 
were dispersed around the world. 
 
The control group consisted of people who did not undertake volunteer tourism but 
who normally went on an annual vacation. Although the ideal control group should 
all travel to South Africa to eliminate South Africa from being a confounding 
variable, such that any changes in the participants may be associated with the 
travel to South Africa rather than the international volunteer work, this was not 
practical. Most European tourists stay an average two weeks in South Africa 
(South Africa Tourism, 2010a); rather than the average ten weeks of this sample 
of volunteer tourists. Therefore, the length of stay would become a confounding 
variable rather than the travel to South Africa. Consequently, the control group 
was made up of a mixture of European and South African residents living their 
day-to-day lives at home. The staged approach enabled the researcher to 
supplement the personality inventory results with interviews in order to discover 
the reported causes of any subsequent changes in the volunteers, such as, the 
travel to South Africa.  
 
The control group were matched to the volunteer tourists on age, gender and 
socio-economic variables, such as, occupation and education; reflecting some of 
the realities of doing research and highlighting limitations in this research. Ideally, 
control groups should be matched on every single relevant attribute, which may 
include, in addition, culture, intelligence, previous experiences, personality, family 
85 
 
background, etc. (Clegg, 1990). Otherwise, any differences between the volunteer 
tourists and control group may be attributed to any one or combination of 
unmatched variables.  
 
In the following chapter, in order to address some of the questions about the 
adequacy of the control group, the researcher carried out statistical tests to 
determine how well the control group matched the volunteers on the 15 traits at 
the start. The statistical tests were limited by the type of data that were collected, 
that is, ordinal data14. The personality inventory data was classified as ordinal 
because verbal labels were used to imply the type of order found, ranging from 
Very Inaccurate (a) to Very Accurate (e). In this regard, there is no sense of equal 
size between the grading to consider it interval data. The implications were such 
that the data could not be tested for normality and spread of scores; a requirement 
for parametric tests such as t-tests. For this reason non-parametric tests were 
used. The Mann-Whitney U-tests revealed no significant differences in 14 of the 
15 traits measured; however, there was a significant difference in ?vulnerability?; 
this outcome is discussed in chapter seven. 
 
In addition to selecting the sample, its size is also important (Clegg, 1990). The 
difficulty for any researcher is deciding what constitutes a suitable sample size 
because there is no ?standard? in terms of the quantity of responses required to 
determine a level of confidence in the data. The research methods literature offers 
differing guidelines, although most authors argue strongly for securing a high rate 
of return as a means of minimising non-response bias and error. Babbie (1990) 
contended that a return of 50% is adequate and Bailey (1987) set the adequacy 
bar at 75%. The literature  frequently cites 60-70% as an appropriate response 
rate, but published reports of self-completed postal surveys are often much lower 
(Punch, 2003). Response rates have traditionally been used as indicators of 
survey quality, but recent studies (Groves, Presser and Dipko, 2004) have 
challenged this practice, having found little relation between variation in response 
rates and changes in non-response error. These studies suggest that respondents 
                                                 
14 As part of a deeper reflexive process, it must be noted that the researcher originally classified the 
personality inventory results as interval data and carried out t-tests on the data. The lesson learnt 
was to invite earlier debate and different opinions into the research process to avoid unnecessary 
rework. However, the original error did provide her with confidence in the results as the non-
 parametric tests highlighted the same traits that were likely to change following a volunteer tourism 
experience. 
86 
 
and non-respondents often do not differ on commonly estimated statistics and 
point out that the standards for acceptable return rates are shaped as much by 
how many responses researchers can get as how many they should get (Groves 
et al., 2004). The challenge was, therefore, to establish how many responses 
would be required to determine a level of confidence in the data. Advice given by 
Babbie (1999), Munro et al. (2008), and Weiner, Schinka and Veliver (2003) 
suggest that an adequate sample size is met if one can show statistical validity. 
Therefore, an a priori power analysis was carried out to determine the minimum 
and maximum number of subjects required to make the study worthwhile, 
Appendix 3. A sample of between 35 and 57 people was found to be required for 
conducting Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed ranks tests on the personality 
inventory results of the control group and the volunteer group (effect size = 0.5, 
error probability = 0.05, power = 0.80-0.95). Although there are no formal 
standards for power, most researchers assess the power of their tests using 0.80 
as a minimum standard for adequacy (Cunningham and McCrum-Gardner, 2007). 
This sample size was similar to the advice15 given by the Psychology Department 
of the University of the Western Cape (UWC), South Africa. They suggested that 
68 volunteer participants were sufficient ? representing 20% of the population of 
Aviva, of 341 volunteers in 2009. Sixty volunteer tourists were used for this 
research. 
 
For the control group?s size, the UWC advised the researcher to use roughly half 
the number of volunteer tourists (30) providing they have a similar socioeconomic 
range. Although control groups have not been used in volunteer tourism research, 
they have been used in volunteering and tourism domains. McBride et al. (2010) 
used a control group of 65% of the total sample, Hughes et al. (2009) 100% and 
Van Willigen (2000) 115%. The differences show a substantial variation in control 
group sizes, relative to the sample sizes, in the two domains. For this study, the 
minimum control group size, of 35 participants, was based on the results of an a 
priori power analysis (Appendix 3). 
 
  
                                                 
15 Charles Malcolm is the Head of Psychology at the University of the Western Cape, South Africa.  His 
sample size suggestions were emailed to the researcher on the 7th July 2008 and 14th May 2008 
respectively. 
 
87 
 
4.7. Data collection process 
For the first grounded theory stage of this research, primary data were collected 
from 109 web-based questionnaires supplemented by secondary data from other 
sources: testimonials from volunteer tourists, academic and other literature, 
correspondence, web-sites, talk shows, blogs and media stories. For the second 
stage, primary quantitative data were collected from a first, second and follow-up 
personality inventory; and for the third stage, qualitative primary data were 
collected from structured web-based interviews, conducted by email. Each of 
these stages is discussed below. 
 
4.7.1. Stage one: grounded theory 
Data were collected from 109 web-based questionnaires supplemented by data 
from the other sources listed above.  
 
The web-based questionnaire design and pilot testing 
The web-based questionnaire, used as primary data for the grounded theory 
method, was set up in conjunction with the web-based personality inventory, the 
second method, as part of the staged methods approach. The personality 
inventory is discussed in detail further on. As was mentioned previously, the use of 
a web-based questionnaire was driven by the dispersed nature of the sample and 
its size. The web-site: www.bucksresearch.org.uk was specially developed for 
collecting data for this research. The web-site was designed to be simple but 
functional and compliant with the Data Protection Act (1998). The web-site was 
formally user-tested16 prior to it being launched in the public domain. Thereafter, a 
pilot study was conducted on the web-site using the first ten control group 
members to test out the data collection process and volume test the technical 
aspects of the web-site, prior to its launch in August 2008. The web-content 
consisted of a home page that described the research purpose (Appendix 4) 
followed by instructions on how to proceed (Appendix 5), followed by the 
questionnaire (Appendix 6) and lastly by the personality inventory with its 
instructions (Appendix 2). 
 
                                                 
16 The researcher is an experienced user-tester and has designed, user-tested and implemented IT solutions 
for a large UK retailer.   
88 
 
The 109 web-based questionnaires, for the grounded theory stage of this 
research, were completed by control group members and volunteer tourists 
between August 2008 and October 2009.  Both groups linked to the web-site 
www.bucksresearch.org.uk to complete the demographic questions and 
personality inventory. The volunteer tourists linked through their on-line booking 
confirmation with Aviva (Appendix 7). The control group linked via an email sent to 
them directly (Appendix 8). The web-based questionnaire (Appendix 6) was short 
and contained two closed questions on age and gender, two open questions 
supplying demographic information on occupation and country of residence and 
five open questions:  
 
1. When is your estimated return date from your trip? 
2. What do you think you will do on the project? 
3. What do you want to do with your spare time on your trip? 
4. What is your understanding of international volunteering (also known as 
voluntourism or volunteer tourism)? 
5. Why are you participating in this type of holiday? 
  
The purpose of the demographic questions was to understand the nature of the 
sample as well as to match the control group to the volunteer tourists. The 
purpose of question one was to diarise the return date of the volunteer tourists for 
completing the post-trip personality inventory. The rest of the questions (two to 
five) helped to understand volunteer tourism. The participants in the control group 
were asked only to complete the demographic questions and question four, for 
which they were asked only to provide their understanding of international 
volunteering. Some control members had been volunteer tourists previously but 
others had not, some knew volunteer tourists and others did not. The 
questionnaire was carefully designed to encourage people to complete it in that 
the questions were as simple and unambiguous as possible and measured the 
objectives of the research. Furthermore, Dommeyer (1988) suggests that 
response rates increase when there is some kind of reward. There was an 
incentive for the participants to complete the questionnaire and personality 
inventory by way of an emailed document summarising some of their personality 
traits. The summary was promised within three working days of submitting the 
questionnaire and personality inventory.  
89 
 
The completed questionnaires and personality inventories were received 
automatically into the researcher?s email account (in the format shown in Appendix 
9) and subsequently printed (as a back-up copy), coded, copied into an Excel 
spreadsheet for analysis and filed chronologically. The email was subsequently 
deleted.   
 
Other data 
The questionnaires were supplemented by secondary data: the testimonials of 34 
volunteer tourists who booked their trip through Aviva. These were retrieved 
directly from the Aviva?s web-site, www.aviva-sa.com, with the permission of the 
Director. An example of one of these testimonials is shown in Appendix 10. These 
were printed and coded as per the questionnaires. There are issues with using 
testimonials because they often only reflect the good times and not the bad times, 
but they were important sources of information nevertheless. Further data were 
collected from other sources (academic and other literature, correspondence, web-
 sites, talk shows, blogs and media stories), listed in Appendix 11. The use of web-
 sites, testimonials and blogs are becoming popular data sources (demonstrated by 
Bede, Baillet and Berge, 2010). These are introspective stories which are the best 
way to access the subjective lived experience (Caru, 2007).  
 
4.7.2. Stage two: Personality Inventory 
Data were collected from the sample described earlier via a web-based personality 
inventory. The web-based personality inventory was designed to look and operate 
in the same way as the official 120-item IPIP-NEO web-site at: 
http://www.personalitytest.net/ipip/ipipneo120.htm. However, for users of the 
official web-site, the results are fed-back instantaneously and participants are told 
that their responses will be entered automatically into a database in order to 
improve norms by age and sex, whereas for this web-based personality inventory, 
this was not necessary. The web-based personality inventories were completed by 
control group members and volunteer tourists, over a three year period, between 
August 2008 and August 2011.  
 
As a result of the pilot study feed-back, the original five page incentive summary of 
people?s personality traits, was reduced in length because it was ?too detailed?. 
This feed-back led to a snappier one page document to improve response rates. 
90 
 
The summary was promised within three working days of submitting the first 
personality inventory on-line. Once the participants entered the web-site, they 
were informed about the research purpose and given instructions on what to do 
before completing the personality inventory. Responses were scored and the 
results summarised in a document (Appendix 12) which was then emailed to the 
participants, with a note thanking them and describing the next steps (Appendix 
13).  
 
The post-trip inventory was requested from the volunteers within four weeks of 
returning home so that they had time to settle back in, yet capture the experience 
whilst it was still fresh in the volunteer?s mind. Dex (1991) reminds us that the error 
of recall is likely to be greater the further back in history the respondent is required 
to remember. The post-trip data collection time period, used in this study, is 
consistent with some tourism and volunteering studies (for example, McBride et 
al., 2010), but not with others. For instance, Bailey and Russell (2010), Ballantyne, 
Packer and Sutherland (2011), McIntosh and Zahra (2007) and Sin (2009) all 
collected data immediately after/at the end of the trip, whilst others, collected data 
three to nine months later (Eley, 2001; Lepp, 2008) or many years afterwards (as 
with Alexander et al., 2010; McGehee and Santos, 2005; Benson and Seibert, 
2009; Wilson and Musick, 2000; Zahra and McIntosh, 2007; Zahra, 2006, 2011). 
These time periods vary according to study design; whether data were collected 
pre-trip, on-site, post-trip or much later, and whether data are being captured to 
determine change over time or not. With regard to the latter, the use of three or 
more repeated measurements is required (Ployhart and Vandenberg, 2009). 
 
For the matched control group members, the second personality inventory was 
requested six months after the completion of the first personality inventory. This 
was a similar time period to the volunteers based on the average length of stay of 
a volunteer with Aviva, six weeks; plus the average length of time between 
booking and leaving, four months; plus two weeks, the length of time the volunteer 
tourist is given after returning home before they are asked to complete the second 
personality inventory.  
 
For both volunteers and control group, the request to complete the second 
personality inventory was done through email (Appendix 14) and managed 
91 
 
through an on-line diary. The completed personality inventories were received 
automatically into the researcher?s email account. This was done in exactly the 
same manner as for the first personality inventory. The responses were then 
scored, summarised (Appendix 15), and emailed to participants within three 
working days. The summary document was accompanied by a thank you note 
(Appendix 16), and, if applicable, two questions about their changes. These two 
questions initiated the web-based structured interview. 
 
The follow-up personality inventory was requested, of the volunteers, one to two 
years later because Ewert and Sibthorp (2009) comment that due to the emotional 
nature of such experiences, researchers often report strong initial gains in 
measured outcomes followed by a decline when the participants return home. A 
review of the volunteer tourism research shows both formal and informal follow-up 
times of between four weeks (Bailey and Russell, 2010) and two years (Sin, 2009). 
The request to complete the follow-up personality inventory was done through 
email (Appendix 17) and managed through an on-line diary. As for the other two 
personality inventories, the third personality inventory was also received 
automatically into the researcher?s email account. Similarly, the responses were 
scored and summarised for the participants (Appendix 18), then emailed to them 
within five working days. 
 
4.7.3. Stage three: web-based structured interviews 
In the web-based structured interview that followed the second personality 
inventory stage, participants were asked to describe the experiences which they 
thought may have led to the change/s and what, if anything, they were doing 
differently now as a result. Once these answers were discussed, the researcher 
also asked the volunteer tourists a few general questions about their trip, such as 
the cost of the trip, perceptions of volunteering, length of stay, proportion of time 
spent on volunteer work, about their tourism activities and views about further 
participation in volunteering (Appendix 19). The email interview/discussion had its 
weaknesses because the participants were not always sure what they thought 
which opens the responses to response bias. For example, volunteer 23 
responded to the second request, to be interviewed, by saying: 
 
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Sorry no excuse for not replying except that I was not sure what to say. 
You have asked what I think led to these changes. I will try but I am not 
very articulate. 
 
So, in this respect, if a participant did not respond to the initial questions they 
would receive, by email, a polite note to try and understand why. In terms of the 
ethical considerations, this gave the participants an opportunity to ?pull out? of the 
research, at which time the researcher took the opportunity to thank them for their 
contribution. 
 
With regard to those who did want to discuss their results, the email discussion 
and the responses to the questions were printed and filed with the personality 
inventory results, for subsequent analysis.  
 
In the following section, a description is given of the data analysis process for all 
three stages of this study: grounded theory, personality inventory and web-based 
structured interviews. 
 
4.8. Data analysis 
 
4.8.1. Grounded theory: process and challenges 
The analysis of the data followed Glaser?s (1992) approach to grounded theory 
with its clearly defined steps (refer to Glaser, 1993, 1998, 2001). In an ongoing 
process, the data were reviewed, coded, compared and analysed, sentence by 
sentence, for emerging themes. For example, one volunteer tourist responded to 
the web-based questionnaire ?what is your understanding of international 
volunteering (also known as volunteer tourism or volunteer tourism)?? 
 
It is about direct involvement and understanding what is happening 
there and how your presence is impacting on those people in that part 
of the world. 
 
The researcher underlined the key point (code) in the sentence and wrote the 
theme/concept it relates to in the left margin of the document, Appendix 20. The 
researcher transferred these concepts to post-it notes so that each concept could 
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be placed on a wall, Appendix 21. The post-it notes facilitated the ongoing 
comparison and categorisation of concepts by providing a useful bird?s-eye view. 
Similar themes/concepts were categorised. The category that emerged with the 
highest frequency created the core category and linked with other connected 
categories and their respective properties. For example, in the extract described 
above, the concept of ?involvement? was identified and placed in the category 
?engagement? which eventually became the core category for describing volunteer 
tourism. All the concepts and their respective categories are described and 
discussed in chapter five. Data were collected until a saturation point was reached, 
where any new data added nothing to what already had been discovered.  
 
During data collection, any ideas, thoughts, connections, theory or questions that 
emerged, were recorded as memos on cards (Glaser, 1998). For example, one 
memo contained the following words: 
 
Look into the difference between formal and informal volunteering. 
 
The researcher used these cards to review the literature on the relevant theory 
and, once a saturation point was reached with the data, the post-it notes (the 
concepts and their respective categories), along with the memos, were then sorted 
into a sequence such that a structure emerged which could be described in words 
providing a robust understanding of volunteer tourism. 
 
One of the benefits of using grounded theory is the amount of data collected for 
analysis. However, this can become overwhelming for the researcher; Denzin and 
Lincoln (1994:508) describe it as a ?flood of concepts?. The researcher addressed 
this by constantly asking the question, of each collection of data, whether it 
resolves the main concern and whether it adds value to the task of understanding 
volunteer tourism. It was eliminated from the analysis if it did not. This was the 
researcher?s method for defining boundaries and restricting the volume of data. 
According to Rykman (2008), a good theory should be parsimonious, or 
economical. That is, the theory should contain only those constructs, relational 
statements and assumptions necessary for the explanation of the phenomenon 
within its domain. The inclusion of unnecessary constructs or assumptions can 
lead an investigator to waste a great amount of effort. 
94 
 
 
Another point worthy of consideration was ?incident tripping?, which Glaser (1992) 
warns of with the large volume of data. Incident tripping is when the researcher 
focuses on particular perceptions and experiences, such as that from colleagues, 
and the constant comparative method is forgotten, so one never gets to the real 
story (Glaser, 1992). Glaser advises the researcher not to discuss the core 
category with anyone, including supervisors, until the end of the research and to 
treat all literature, academic or otherwise, as ego-equals. This can prove 
challenging for researchers with no formal experience in grounded theory. The 
researcher, therefore, relied on Glaser?s (1993, 1998 and 2001) step-by-step 
process and support from experienced tutors. To begin with the process was 
daunting because the researcher was unclear how to identify a code, a 
theme/concept and a category; but this uncertainty subsided as more data were 
collected and compared, and confidence grew in the process.   
 
Once the theoretical explanation emerged to describe volunteer tourism, the 
researcher was more knowledgeable of the substantive area and therefore in a 
more informed position to determine its effect on the tourist. The following section 
describes the analysis of the completed personality inventories. 
 
4.8.2. Personality Inventory: process and challenges 
The analysis of the data involved scoring and comparing the first and second 
personality tests? median scores. Then, one to two years later, the second test was 
compared with the follow-up test. All three personality inventories were scored in 
exactly the same way using a 5-point scale. The scores were converted into 
numbers, where a=1, b=2, c=3, d=4 and e=5. However, there were also questions 
for which the reverse numbering applied (questions 15, 26-27, 30, 34, 38-39, 41-
 42, 44-45, 47 and 49-60). For these questions, a=5, b=4, c=3, d=2 and e=1. An 
Excel spreadsheet was used for scoring purposes. The researcher highlighted the 
questions for which reverse scoring applied, in red, to reduce input error. The 
spreadsheet was designed to functionally add the scores together for each trait. 
   
The first test score, for each trait, was then compared with the second test score 
and the differences noted to establish the ?changes?, Appendix 22, so that the 
results could be fed-back to the participant. The purpose of the feed-back was 
95 
 
twofold: firstly, it was to incentivise the volunteer tourists and control group 
members to participate in the research and, secondly, the feed-back provided the 
opportunity to discuss the results/changes with the participants in order to 
understand the meaning of the changes to the participants.  
 
Similarly, one to two years later, the second test scores were compared with the 
follow-up test scores to determine whether any of the initial changes still held. 
 
Statistical tests 
The types of statistical analyses carried out on data are determined by three 
restrictions: the type of measurement the scores represent; the distribution of 
scores, whether or not they come from a normal distribution; and the spread of the 
scores (Albery et al., 2004; Clegg, 1990). Parametric tests are more sophisticated 
and more powerful than nonparametric tests because they are better able to reject 
correctly the null hypothesis; however, they have more restrictions (Clegg, 1990). 
Firstly, the units measured must attain interval or ratio sophistication. Secondly, 
they can only be used on data derived from normal (nearly normal) distributions, 
although there is a certain amount of controversy among statisticians over how far 
you can break this ?rule? and get away with it (Albery et al., 2004; Clegg, 1990). 
According to Brown (1997) violations of the assumption of normality are only 
problematic if the test is norm referenced and being used for norm-referencing. 
That is, comparing a person's score against the scores of a group of people who 
have already taken the same test. Furthermore, it can be problematic when the 
purpose of a parametric test is to make inferences from the sample statistic to the 
population parameter through sampling distributions (Chong-ho, 2010). Thirdly, 
homogeneity of variance is required. This means that the two sets of scores must 
have similar variances. So, the decisions around which tests to use were 
determined by these three restrictions. As was discussed earlier in this chapter, 
the data were classified as ordinal because verbal labels were used to imply the 
type of order found, ranging from Very Inaccurate (a) to Very Accurate (e). 
Therefore, non-parametric tests were used; the Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed 
ranks test and Mann-Whitney U-test, depending on whether the samples were 
matched or not (Clegg, 1990; Sekaran, 2003).  
 
96 
 
These tests were used to determine: a) how well matched the volunteer group and 
control group were on their first test scores, using the Mann-Whitney U-test; b) the 
influence of day-to-day life on the personality traits, using the Wilcoxon matched-
 pairs signed ranks test; c) the influence of volunteer tourism on the personality 
traits, using the Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed ranks test; and d) the influence of 
age, gender, project type, length of stay and time elapsed post-trip, again using 
the Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed ranks test. Excel was used to score the 
personality inventory results. The following web-sites were used to access the 
statistics programmes for carrying out the Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed ranks 
tests and Mann-Whitney U-tests respectively:  
1. http://www.fon.hum.uva.nl/Service/Statistics/Signed_Rank_Test.html 
2. http://elegans.som.vcu.edu/~leon/stats/utest.html 
 
4.8.3. Analysis of interviews: process and challenges 
Following the statistical analyses, the participants were asked describe the trip?s 
experiences which they thought might have led to the changes and what they were 
doing differently as a result. The email discussion and responses were then 
analysed using the IPA method. For the volunteer tourists, six additional questions 
were asked about their trip; these questions were highlighted earlier in this 
chapter.  
 
The use of specific structured questions may be a limitation to this research in so 
far as the researcher could have missed opportunities to receive unexpected but 
useful information from a less structured inquiry.  
 
Analysis of the data followed Smith and Osborn?s (2004) recommendations, 
beginning with the first script (the email discussion), searching for themes and 
respective categories before proceeding to the next script. Once all the scripts 
were coded, the search for patterns followed to establish master categories 
(super-ordinate themes) for the group as a whole. These categories were then 
tabulated, with references to the themes in the scripts. Having established the 
main categories, the master table was then translated into a narrative account. 
The categories were then described in detail supported by extracts taken from the 
interviews. 
 
97 
 
So, the IPA process involved taking each email discussion and underlining the key 
points (themes) in the sentences associated with what people are feeling and 
thinking about their experience, referencing them in the margin, Appendix 23, and 
writing the themes on a summary sheet along with a tentative category for the 
theme, Appendix 24. There was a summary sheet, per trait, for the experiences 
explaining the change/s and another for the impacts of volunteer tourism on 
volunteers? day-to-day lives, Appendix 25 and Appendix 26 respectively. The 
summary sheets were useful in looking for patterns between the scripts to 
establish master categories for the group as a whole.  
 
Having established the main categories, the researcher then translated the master 
table into a narrative account, introducing the topic and then each master category 
in turn. The categories are then described in detail and supported with verbatim 
extracts taken from the interviews. So, the purpose of the analysis was to develop 
an understanding of individuals? experiences through coding and identifying 
emerging themes in the scripts. However, this coding required interpretation and is 
therefore a subjective account of the international volunteer tourism experience 
from a small group of volunteer tourists using Aviva. 
 
A significant challenge was contending with the poor response rate to the 
interview. This is discussed in the section on ethics, later in this chapter. The 
following section discusses the concepts of validity and reliability as a means of 
evaluating research. 
 
4.9. Validity and reliability 
The concepts of validity and reliability are used to evaluate research projects 
especially those which follow a positivist paradigm. 
  
Validity is the property of being true, correct, conforming of reality (Albery et al., 
2004; Flanagan, 1995). This is the extent to which a study produces accurate 
results (internal validity) and produces results that are widely applicable (external 
validity), that it measures what it is supposed to measure and not something else.  
 
98 
 
Reliability is to do with results that are consistent or dependable; the degree to 
which a particular test or experiment gives the same result when used repeatedly 
under similar conditions (Albery et al., 2004; Clegg, 1990; Flanagan, 1995).  
 
Interpretative research is not commonly associated with ?tests? and experiments 
and the approach has been regarded by positivists as exploratory and largely 
unscientific and so the use of validity and reliability are not possible for evaluating 
findings within this discourse (Decrop, 2004). Instead, Erlandson, Harris, Skipper 
and Allen (1993) suggest using trustworthiness for qualitative studies to make 
studies more rigorous. A trustworthy study, they state, is able to ?demonstrate truth 
value, provide the basis for applying it, and allow for external judgement to be 
made about the consistency of its procedures and the neutrality of its finding and 
decisions? (p. 29). Lincoln and Guba?s (1985) basic criteria of trustworthiness 
parallels positivists? reliability and validity. Their typology is one of the most 
comprehensive efforts in establishing scientific canons for qualitative inquiry 
(Decrop, 2004). They have developed four criteria for qualitative inquiry. Credibility 
(which relates to the quantitative criterion of internal validity) refers to how truthful 
particular findings are. Transferability (associated with external validity) is 
concerned with the extent to which the research findings are applicable to another 
setting or group. Dependability (related to reliability) consists of looking at whether 
the results are consistent and reproducible. Confirm-ability (associated with 
objectivity) pertains to how neutral the findings are. In qualitative research, 
credibility can be questioned owing to the ?subjective? nature of the data collected, 
since there is no rigid separation between the researchers and their subjects, 
being an interactive and participative relationship. So, other techniques are used 
by qualitative researchers to address validity and reliability, and these will be 
described in the following section.  
 
Additionally, there are data collection methods that draw on both types of 
evaluation such as grounded theory, where the findings/results/theory are 
evaluated by means of ?fit?, ?relevance?, ?workability? and ?modifiability? (Glaser, 
2001). Here, the theory must closely fit the substantive area in which it will be 
used, must be readily understandable by laymen concerned with the area, it must 
be sufficiently general to be applicable to a multitude of diverse daily situations 
within the substantive area and it must allow the user partial control over the 
99 
 
structure and process of daily situations as they change through time (Glaser and 
Strauss, 1967).   
 
The following section discusses each of these mechanisms/concepts with 
reference to this research.   
 
4.9.1. Internal validity/credibility 
Campbell (1957) defines internal validity as the extent to which the relationship 
between two variables is causal in the specific situation/s. To claim that there 
really is a causal relationship between two variables, he posits, it is necessary to 
be convinced that those variables have been adequately defined. In this study, the 
variables are volunteer tourism (independent variable) and specific traits 
(dependent variables). Although both were discussed in chapter one, the 
explanation of volunteer tourism was limited. This prompted the grounded theory 
study in order to arrive at a new explanation of volunteer tourism. This new 
explanation would need to fit and be of relevance to the area it purports to explain. 
For grounded theory, this is achieved by rich samples to enable saturated and 
meaningful themes and theoretical explanation to be developed (Glaser and 
Strauss, 1967). It is the process of constant comparison which corrects any 
inaccuracies of data. In grounded theory, credibility is achieved through the 
process (Glaser and Strauss, 1967). The aim is to develop a theory that is abstract 
of time, place and people; generalisable; fits; works; and is relevant and highly 
modifiable as categories are constantly compared to discover variations, which are 
then applied to develop new properties. 
 
Once the theoretical explanation for volunteer tourism was developed, the 
researcher made use of the 60-item IPIP-NEO personality inventory to measure 
changes in specific traits following an international volunteer tourism experience. 
Albery et al. (2004) and Bryant, King and Smart (2007) identified three aspects to 
test validity of such instruments, they are: content validity, the degree to which an 
instrument covers all relevant aspects of the conceptual or behavioural domain it is 
intended to measure; criterion validity, the degree to which an instrument can be 
used to predict a relevant external outcome (measures what it claims to measure); 
construct validity, the degree of confidence one can have in labelling 
measurements in theory-relevant terms. This tripartite conception of validity is 
100 
 
consistent with the model adopted in current testing standards and guidelines in 
psychology and education (Bryant et al., 2007). Furthermore, it is consistent with 
the well-validated IPIP-NEO (Buchanan, Johnson and Goldberg, 2005), the 
personality inventory used for this research. However, the researcher made some 
changes to the original 120-item, 30 traits version. These were discussed earlier in 
the chapter and have the potential to affect the validity of the personality inventory; 
hence precautions were taken to reduce these effects, such as, using the original 
120-item version IPIP-NEO survey questions for each of the 15 traits measured for 
this research. 
 
Additionally, Ferguson and Bibby (2004) state that the aim of maintaining internal 
validity is to rule out any extraneous variables that may account for the findings 
and in this respect the researcher used a control group matched on age, gender 
and occupation. One problem with the control group was that they did not all travel 
to South Africa as part of their annual vacation, so the travel to South Africa per se 
could account for any changes in the volunteer, a potential weakness of this study. 
However, in an attempt to resolve this problem, the email interviews were 
analysed in chapter eight; the results suggested it was the volunteering experience 
rather than the travel to South Africa which accounted for the changes.  
 
The email interviews were analysed using the IPA method, with recognition that 
the researcher plays a role in producing her own understanding of an interviewee?s 
account. IPA operates within the interpretative discourse and, therefore, requires 
different strategies for evaluation of validity. IPA?s validity is anchored in the data 
(in the participants? accounts). So, in order to assess whether the findings are 
accurate/truthful/credible, different techniques are adopted by researchers. In this 
study the findings were checked with the research subjects themselves 
(respondent validation), by inviting informants to read the analysis provided by the 
researcher (Belsky, 2004; Decrop, 2004; Meek, 2007; Silverman, 1993). 
Additionally, there were many references to the data in order to support the 
analysis and interpretation, to enhance the credibility of the findings (Erlandson et 
al., 1993).  
 
101 
 
4.9.2. External validity/transferability 
To demonstrate external validity, positivists aim for generalisation, to make claims 
about the world in general on the basis of their findings. Studies that lack external 
validity only tell the reader about behaviour in the specific situation. However, 
there is a trade-off between internal validity and external validity because the more 
one tries to control every unwanted factor in the research setting to improve 
internal validity; the more artificial the researcher makes the setting. So a study, 
especially a scientific investigation that takes the form of an experiment, may have 
excellent internal validity but limited applicability to the real world. Another threat to 
external validity comes from the people studied because a researcher cannot test 
everyone, only a sample of people. The sample must therefore be typical of the 
people the researcher wants to describe to claim the generalisability of the results. 
For this research, the researcher does not claim generalisability of the results 
because non-random sampling techniques were used. Nevertheless, it was still 
important to demonstrate the similarities between the participants and other Aviva 
volunteers, in chapter one, to enhance the study?s usability. 
 
The generalisation issue is a frequent criticism raised against qualitative research 
(in this case the IPA method) because the findings are based on small and non-
 representative samples. However, in addressing this criticism a distinction must be 
made between statistical generalisation and analytical generalisation. While the 
statistical generalisation of qualitative data is most often not possible or desirable, 
the analytic transfer of theoretical propositions to other objects, people, settings 
phenomena, etc, is conceivable, provided the researcher knows and gives details 
about the context of the study, integrates findings with existent literature, and 
describes how related objects are similar (Decrop, 2004). This ultimately depends 
on what kinds of generalisation one might wish to make. Mook (1983) argues that 
external validity is really a question, not a criterion. Decrop (2004) and Meek 
(2007) add that, by describing the data extensively and compiling them in an 
orderly way so as to give other researchers the opportunity to appraise the 
findings and the extent to which they could be transferred to other settings, helps 
readers estimate the plausibility and transferability of an interpretative study.  
 
With regard to the grounded theory, transferability is easily and almost 
automatically achieved through the process of constant comparison. 
102 
 
Generalisation is facilitated through making decisions on the conceptual level of 
the emerging categories. The researcher should be guided by the criteria that the 
categories should not be so abstract as to lose their sensitising aspect, but yet be 
abstract enough to make the theory a general guide to multi-conditional, ever-
 changing daily situations. So, for grounded theory, transferability can be achieved 
by producing concepts that have broad practical use in the substantive area 
(Glaser and Strauss, 1967).  
 
4.9.3. Reliability/dependability 
Reliability is concerned with the degree to which a particular test or experiment 
gives the same result when used repeatedly under similar conditions. The easiest 
way to access reliability is to test the same group of people twice: a reliable 
questionnaire will produce similar scores at both points in time (test-retest 
reliability).  
 
The term correlation is often used to determine if two scores are similar; it is a 
means of specifying precisely the extent to which two things are associated 
(Clegg, 1990; Ferguson and Bibby, 2004). If two measures are in perfect 
association, that is, the score for a variable on one test is always accompanied by 
a similar score on the same variable on the other test, they are said to be perfectly 
positively correlated.  If, on the other hand, there is no association between the 
variables in the tests, then there is no correlation. In test reliability terms, if a high 
correlation is obtained between the two variables on both tests, then the test under 
scrutiny can be regarded as reliable (Clegg, 1990; Ferguson and Bibby, 2004). In 
reality, however, if the same group of people are tested twice, the subjects may 
remember their responses from the last time and give the same response for the 
second test, and this may undermine reliability. As a result, the American 
Psychological Association has insisted that the time period guidelines are set out 
in the psychological test users? manuals, which should specify the most favourable 
time period between measurements to maintain high test-retest reliability 
(Ferguson and Bibby, 2004). With regard to the NEO PI-R personality inventory on 
which the IPIP-NEO personality inventory is based, the ideal time period between 
testing is between three months and six years apart, the test-retest reliability 
reported in the manual over six years was: N= .83, E= .82, O= .83, A= .63, C= 
.79. Costa and McCrae (1992) point out that this not only shows good reliability 
103 
 
of the domains, but also that they are stable over a long periods of time, as the 
scores over six years are only marginally different from the scores measured a 
few months apart.  
 
For the IPIP-NEO 120-item, the coefficient alpha reliabilities by trait are: anxiety 
(0.78), depression (0.84), vulnerability (0.75), assertiveness (0.83), action (0.70), 
artistic interests (0.74), emotionality (0.67), adventurousness (0.70), intellect 
(0.73), liberalism (0.63), trust (0.85), altruism (0.74), self-efficacy (0.60), 
dutifulness (0.66) and cautiousness (0.86). These reliabilities can be directly 
applied to the 60-item version used for this research. Reliability was also 
verified, in chapter six, by using the control group to test for similar scores over 
two points in time, that is, six months apart. 
 
As IPA operates within the interpretative discourse, it requires different strategies 
for evaluation of reliability. In interpretative research, reality is not single and 
immutable but multiple and contextual (Decrop, 2004, p.157). Therefore, 
knowledge generated is not absolute; but bound by time, context, culture and 
value, and so replicability has no place in interpretative research because of 
the ever-changing nature of the social world (Marshall and Rossman, 1995). 
Instead, Decrop (2004) suggests the use of the criterion of dependability to 
appraise the consistency between the data recorded and what actually 
occurred in the setting. Decrop (2004) and Meek (2007) suggest a number of 
ways in qualitative research to increase dependability: being transparent with 
one?s research plan and data interpretation, and documenting any changes, as 
was the case for this research.  
 
With regard to grounded theory, reliability is even more problematic to assess 
because standardised research techniques are an antithesis to the 
unstructured and sometimes spontaneous strategies of the grounded theory. 
The methodology is entirely context driven. Furthermore, data analysis in 
quantitative research involves statistical tests, but grounded theory data are 
analysed by the constant comparison procedure; a process which cannot be 
standardised as it relies on the ability and theoretical sensitivity of the 
researcher. Hence Guba and Lincoln (1998) suggest the criterion of 
104 
 
dependability in evaluating grounded theory and like Decrop (2004) they 
recommend ?auditability? to be the criterion for rigour, such that one can clearly 
follow the decision trail used by the researchers in their decisions about the 
theoretical, methodological and analytical choices made in the study, and reach 
comparable conclusions using the investigator?s data and context. The 
systematic and rigorous procedures of the grounded theory allow the research 
process to be audited thus increasing the reliability of the research. 
Additionally, all categories and properties are constantly verified as part of the 
process for generating theory. 
 
This section on validity and reliability discussed some of the ways both positivist 
and interpretative inquiry can validate research and enhance reliability. However, it 
is ultimately the reader who will judge the study content based on their own values 
and lines of inquiry. In this respect, it is the researcher?s responsibility to ensure 
that every step of the process is transparent and accompanied by an explanation 
regardless of which lines of inquiry are being used.  
 
The active transparency of the whole research process, the decision trail used by 
the researcher in her decisions about the theoretical, methodological and 
analytical choices made in the study, especially with regard to the interpretative 
aspects of the research, is part of a reflexive process which is discussed in the 
following section.  
 
4.10. Reflexivity and ethics: My role 
Galani-Moutafi (2000) refers to reflexivity as the conscious use of the self as a 
resource for making sense of others. This requires researchers to acknowledge 
and question their culture and identity in order to provide some insight into their 
understanding of themselves in the context of their interactions with others. 
Reflexivity allows the research to be situated, as it depends on the point of view of 
the researcher, ?which in turn reflects how she is positioned intellectually, politically 
and socially? (Barnes and Sheppard, 2000:6).  
 
For this research, epistemologically speaking, the psychology discipline provided 
the initial methodology, a personality inventory, to justify knowledge claims of 
105 
 
changes in traits; and the volunteer tourism provided the context. However, during 
the process of the research, the strategy evolved to incorporate other methods to 
bridge the gaps in this knowledge. The concept of volunteer tourism is not 
universally agreed upon, and how the experience changes the volunteer tourist is 
not extensively investigated. As a result, the strategy evolved from using a 
psychological tool/method to include the use of grounded theory and interpretative 
phenomenological analysis.  
  
Also, of significance to this study is the fact that the researcher was not sponsored 
by external sources and was in the privileged position of being able to self fund the 
research; therefore there were no other vested interests. The implications were 
twofold: firstly, this meant that the only motive behind the research was a genuine 
desire to learn more about the catalysts for change and development of self, rather 
than to satisfy a sponsor?s interests. This provided the freedom to explore an area 
that may not otherwise have been explored in this manner. Secondly, it meant 
there were no interests to compromise, cloud judgements or raise ethical 
dilemmas.  
  
In his very open account of the role of the personal in the research process, Hall 
(2004:149) states: ?the personal is critical in determining the kind of research lines 
we follow.? So, if the researcher is to use reflexivity, we should start with ourselves, 
and be honest about our life and why we are doing what we do. Making such 
personal value statements is not easy and may not be easily accepted in a thesis, 
but it is in agreement with Gibson and Jordan (2004) who point out that it gives the 
audience an idea of how the interpretation process and the resulting findings are 
influenced. It also makes the research transparent and easier to evaluate. In 
addition to providing information on the researcher?s background, assumptions 
and values, Humberstone (2004) discusses the use of providing a personal 
account of the whole research experience so that, in addition, the social 
construction of the research process can be explored. However, one must be 
mindful of focussing too much on one-self such that the research becomes about 
one-self rather than about the problem under study. Hollinshead, (2004:67) states, 
reflexivity is still not common practice and ?too few researchers in all fields are 
prepared to indulge in what must admittedly be recognised as the longer reflective 
and necessarily deeper reflexive effort that the logic of qualitative methodologies is 
106 
 
inclined to demand?. This effort involves self-introspection through the research 
process; methodological recognition of the way in which the researcher is 
connected to the world in which the research is taking place and the impact of this 
on the research; acknowledgement of the interrelationship between the research 
and research participants and the ways in which all parties shape the research; 
realistic writing up that encompasses both the ?commonalities? and the 
?contradictions? found in the research (Dupuis, 1999).  
 
In this research reflexivity is manifested in a number of ways: by making 
participants themselves reflective, by encouraging them, through interview, to think 
about the changes in their traits and then presenting their views and giving them 
voice in the discussion; transparency throughout the research process regarding 
?contradictions? (for example, I use a personality inventory tool; personality being 
rooted in stability and predictability, to measure change and flexibility) and 
?commonalities? (for example, the participants were asked to search for meaning in 
their experience; their reflections coincided with the concept of engagement which 
emerged as the key concept for describing volunteer tourism using grounded 
theory); noting the known and potential unknown impacts of the researcher on the 
participants and vice versa, for example, the effect of the web-link which was 
designed to attract participants to the research project by saying, ?would you like to 
find out more about yourself, and how your volunteering experience could change 
and develop you as a person?? (could this wording become a self-fulfilling 
prophecy?); highlighting the concerns and difficulties with and during the research 
process; the subtle influence of supervisors and academic community on the 
direction of the research, for example, their weighting of ?key? emerging concepts 
which I might not have noticed myself; noting what I would have done differently if 
I were to carry out the research again with new knowledge, such as, seeking 
greater debate before ?jumping? into data analysis.   
 
In relation to ethics in research, Handelsman, Knapp and Gottlieb (2005) point out 
that generally the research guidelines focus too heavily on avoiding or punishing 
misconduct rather than promoting the highest ethical conduct. They tell the 
researcher what not to do rather than what they should aspire to (positive ethics). 
The American Psychological Association (APA) developed an ethics code in 1948 
by soliciting examples of problematic situations (Handelsman et al., 2005). In 
107 
 
1992, the ethics code introduced aspirational ethical principles in addition to the 
enforceable standards of conduct. Similarly, The British Psychological Society 
(2006) has a detailed code that covers research which encompasses the following 
ethical principles: protection of participants from harm, right to privacy, deception, 
informed consent, debriefing and giving advice. 
 
Although the volunteer tourism literature notes basic ethical standards, such as, 
obtaining consent, maintaining confidentiality, record keeping and compliance with 
the Data Protection Act, the right for participants to withdraw and sharing research 
data for verification, it could benefit from a discussion of ethical principles, for 
example, respect for others? rights and dignities. However, in order to do this, 
researchers need to confront their own values and the virtues they want to 
develop. This may be difficult, especially in the face of competing forces such as 
the desire to collect data versus the right for participants to withdraw. There are a 
number of models of ethical reasoning that cover such dilemmas (see Haas and 
Malouf, 1989; Kitchener, 2000). These models broaden the context of ethical 
thinking beyond immediate circumstances and simplistic calculations. Unlike 
ethical standards which can be applied directly and visibly to individual research 
projects, ethical principles are more of a philosophy which can be applied to 
everyday life and may often go unseen.  
 
Ethical standards 
There were ethical standards required for this research, because some data were 
of a personal nature and were stored on computer and in hard copy and therefore 
required the appropriate handling as per the Data Protection Act (1998). Also there 
were ethical considerations and dilemmas; these were captured in a diary which 
was used throughout the research project. The diary contained the issues and the 
actions in chronological order, Appendix 27 (extract). For example, there were 
ethical considerations involved in the use of a web-site, such as, ensuring no data 
were stored on the web, it was rather transferred to a personal computer (diary 
entry 28.05.08); no name was attached to a record, just a combination of 
alphanumeric characters for the researcher to identify the record; there was an 
introductory note explaining the purpose of the research, what it would involve, 
how long it would take, and stating that all data would be treated in the strictest 
confidence and would not be disclosed to anyone; and there was a contact name 
108 
 
for any queries with regard to the web-site and its contents. There was also a 
question of whether I required ethics approval by the university board because of 
the country of residence of a large number of participants, many of whom were not 
from the United Kingdom (diary entry 06.05.08, 09.06.08 and 24.06.08). It was 
found not to be required. A further consideration was obtaining approval for the 
use of the IPIP-NEO personality inventory from the appropriate authority17. I 
requested further ethical guidelines from the British Psychological Society (2006) - 
the research was conducted within those guidelines. 
  
Ethical considerations 
There were ethical dilemmas over the use of the official IPIP-NEO web-site to 
score this study?s results (diary entry 11.06.08). Its use would have compromised 
their own data because the norms by age and sex would be affected. I, therefore, 
designed a bespoke, shortened version of the IPIP-NEO personality inventory; to 
similarly score the results but independently. A further dilemma presented itself on 
a regular basis over how many times one should try to contact a participant if they 
did not respond to the request to complete the personality inventory or answer 
some questions (diary entry 28.10.08, 05.11.08a and 05.11.08b). I was mindful of 
harassing the participant and of their right to withdraw at any time, so any 
correspondence included the option of being able to renegotiate their consent as 
the study developed, and therefore withdraw or modify what they originally agreed 
to do. As there are no specific guidelines on this from the British Psychological 
Society, I did what I considered acceptable, that is, two to three requests. After 
that, I considered the participant to have withdrawn from that point in the research 
process. Two further ethical dilemmas appeared during the course of the research, 
the first was a language barrier highlighted by a Swiss lady who said her English 
was poor and that she could not understand the personality inventory questions, 
the researcher had to be sensitive to this when asking her to withdraw (diary entry 
28.11.08). The second problem was around confidentiality when I was asked to 
comment on one participant?s personality traits. This would have been a breach of 
trust and confidentiality (diary entry 12.12.08). 
 
There were other ethical challenges as some participants were less and less 
inclined to continue with the research as it progressed. At the interview stage 
                                                 
17 John Johnson is a Professor of Psychology at the Pennsylvania State University, USA. 
109 
 
participants were being asked to reflect on their trip (or on what had happened 
during the last six months in the case of control group members) and this is often a 
time consuming and potentially difficult thing to do. So, people were asked only to 
complete this stage if they had time. If they didn?t respond to the request for 
interview, I asked them to choose from a list of six multiple choice responses, 
Appendix 28, in order to understand why they didn?t want to be interviewed. The 
interview was important for validating the results of the personality inventory so 
there were implications depending on the reason for not wanting to be interviewed. 
For all those volunteers who either completed the research, or withdrew from it, 
each received a debrief by way of a thank you and a summary of the findings.  
 
4.11. Conclusion of this chapter 
The multi-paradigm research strategy, using a staged methods research design 
was discussed in this chapter. Three stages were identified for this study: stage 
one, the grounded theory study; stage two, the personality inventory; and stage 
three, the web-based structured interviews. Each method addresses different 
aspects of the research question; each one adding to the other. Within this 
chapter, each method of data collection and analysis was discussed in turn. 
Additionally, issues of validity and reliability surrounding the results/findings were 
discussed, and consideration was given to the concept of reflexivity in the 
research process which was also manifested in the ethical considerations and 
dilemmas that were presented.  The following chapter discusses stage one, the 
grounded theory study, used to provide an explanation of volunteer tourism. 
  
110 
 
5. CHAPTER FIVE - grounded theory: analysis and findings 
 
 
Chapter five provides an explanation of volunteer tourism using grounded theory 
to clarify the conceptual components of volunteer tourism and to provide a more 
in-depth understanding of it before investigating its impact on the tourist. 
 
5.1. Conceptual clarification of the term volunteer 
tourism 
An examination of the volunteer tourism literature in chapter one and specifically 
the similarities and differences between what is perceived as volunteer tourism 
and the associated forms of tourism, revealed that the term could benefit from 
further exploration.  
 
The phrase that emerged as an explanation of volunteer tourism is ?engagement in 
volunteer work as a tourist?. As the phrase indicates it consists of three main 
elements: ?engagement?, ?tourist? and ?volunteer work?. The accumulated findings 
are shown diagrammatically in Figures 2-4. In these figures, the reader will see the 
three elements and their constituent concepts/themes. It was through the process 
of coding, conceptualising and categorising that the data led to the emergent 
theoretical explanation. ?Engagement? emerged as the core category which 
subsumed the other two categories of ?volunteer work? and ?tourist? and, combined, 
differentiated volunteer tourism from other forms of tourism and its allied notions. 
What follows is a detailed explanation of the engagement core category and the 
subsumed categories of volunteer work and tourist.  Thereafter, Glaser?s (1998) 
criteria will be applied to the phrase to determine whether the term, ?engagement 
in volunteer work as a tourist? is trustworthy to be used as a definition for volunteer 
tourism.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
111 
 
ENGAGEMENT
 Participation
 Ac
 tio
 n
 Integration
 Pe
 ne
 tra
 tio
 n
 Interacti
 on
 Involvement
 Imm
 ersio
 n
  
Figure 2. The concepts relating to the category of engagement. 
 
 
 
 
 
VOLUNTEER
 WORK
 Ra
 ng
 e
 Payment
 Time
 Pu
 rpo
 se
 Choice
  
Figure 3. The concepts relating to the category of volunteer work. 
112 
 
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Figure 4. The concepts relating to the category of tourist. 
113 
 
5.2. The concept of engagement 
Engagement emerged as the essential, key component of volunteer tourism. It 
encompassed the concepts of: participation, action, integration, penetration, 
interaction, involvement and immersion, defined in Table 8.  
 
 
Table 8. The core category of engagement with its concepts and properties 
Core category: engagement 
Concepts Property 
Participation Sharing in an activity. 
Action Doing something. 
Integration Mixing with other people or ethnic groups. 
Penetration 
Interaction 
Involvement 
Immersion 
To see clearly and deeply. 
To have an effect on each other. 
To become connected or associated with. 
To engross yourself and get absorbed in. 
 
 
A volunteer tourist responded: ?You go and help where ever you may be needed 
with various ? things, for example, I helped out with some teaching and then in 
surrounding villages I put up fences? (Karen, United Kingdom). What this 
respondent did while volunteering was that she ?acted? and ?interacted?; ?helped?, 
engaged in ?teaching? and ?put up fences?. For her, volunteer tourism was a 
participatory travel experience (Billington et al., 2008; Coghlan, 2006a; McGehee, 
2005) which went beyond Urry?s (2002) reference to tourists consuming spaces 
through the acts of looking and walking but never engaging, to being active 
participants wanting to, as another respondent relayed, ?give time to others to 
improve their lives? (Pat, South Africa). Engagement in voluntary work as a tourist 
is a new emerging type of tourism, a niche tourism, which contrasts with the 
concept of ?the gaze?, characteristic of the more traditional and homogenous mass 
tourism (Philbrook, 2007). The ?need? of the volunteer tourist to be involved, to 
engage, characterizes the modern tourist?s desire to experience a place and its 
culture rather than merely stand back and gaze: ?It is about helping others whilst 
you enjoy the culture and climate of another country usually hotter than the UK but 
more disadvantaged? (Skinzzzy, United Kingdom); ?a big piece of it is cultural 
114 
 
immersion? (Kimberley, Australia). It is this concept of cultural immersion which 
prompted some authors to draw parallels between volunteer tourism and cultural 
tourism (see, for example, Brown, 2005). To one volunteer tourist, ?It [volunteer 
tourism] was about being able to physically and emotionally immerse oneself in 
the local culture and community? (Tammy, Canada); a kind of ?integration? and 
?penetration? where the tourist seeks a natural and authentic experience (see 
MacCannell, 1989; Cohen, 1988; Wickens, 2011)  rather than a contrived 
experience reported of tourism by Boorstin (1961). However, as 
Kontogeorgopoulos (2003) points out in his study of tourists in Thailand, 
authenticity means different things to different people; nevertheless, it is an 
individual?s desire for cultural authenticity that differentiates volunteer tourism from 
traditional mass tourism and confers on it the term ?alternative form of tourism? 
(see Wearing, 2001).  
 
Engagement is a more comprehensive term than that of ?interaction? proposed by 
Wearing (2001). Many tourism activities involve interaction with the ?other? 
(Wearing, 2001) which may result in some impacts on the few individuals 
concerned, but it does not necessarily result in ?connecting? with one another. 
Engagement, on the other hand, usually involving a larger number of people, is 
about connecting with the ?other? in some kind of meaningful action. It is 
associated with Csikszentmihalyi?s (1975) ?flow experience? which has been used 
more recently by Ryan (1996) to describe the role of guides in white-water rafting. 
Flow experience, Csikszentmihalyi posits, is ?complete involvement of the actor 
with his activity? (p. 36).  
 
Geoff Brown, a Community Partnership Coordinator at Florida Fish and Wildlife 
Conservation Commission, uses the term ?connection? rather than ?interaction? in 
describing what volunteer tourists do: ?perhaps I should set up some activities 
here in Florida to recruit the breed of folks [travellers] who want a 'connection'. 
They may be interested to find projects like these [litter pick up/ invasive non-
 native pest-plant removal] during a visit or vacation to help them feel connected to 
the destination in a way that a 'tourist' would not?.  The engagement themes of 
connection, commitment and immersion recurred in many respondents? perception 
and description of volunteer tourism:  ?I will be assisting workers in the children?s 
home and tending to the children?s needs, I will be helping the project reach its 
115 
 
objectives? (Audrey, Ireland); ?It is a type of tourism which involves engaging in 
activities to further a charitable cause? (Ali, United Kingdom).  
 
These concepts, found within the core category of engagement, thus build on 
Alexander and Bakir?s (2011) empirically tested components of ?Relate-Dedicate-
 Donate? describing engagement in volunteer tourism: 
 
?Relate? describes volunteer tourists interacting and getting involved 
(integrating) with other volunteers and the communities. Volunteer 
tourists ?donate? to an outside customer, the community where the 
project is located, by doing something (action) and getting absorbed in 
the tasks at hand (immersion), and volunteer tourists ?dedicate? 
themselves by participating in purposeful work. 
 
5.3. The concept of volunteer work 
A summarised account of the concept ?volunteer work?, another category of 
volunteer tourism will be presented here. The components of this emerging 
category included the concepts of: choice, range of work, payment (to a provider), 
period of time and specific purpose, each is described in Table 9.  
 
The concept of ?choice? was significant in its frequent appearance in respondents? 
narratives. One volunteer tourist who sent notes about her ?do-it-yourself? 
volunteer trips stated:  
 
How, doing what, and where you choose to volunteer is entirely up to 
you.  Do you prefer a specific area of the world? Will you survive 
without running water and flush toilets? Can you get by in a foreign 
language? What do you want to do? Teach English? Dig ditches? 
Restore narrow-gauge train tracks? For one week? Or one year? 
(Anna, Sweden). 
 
 
  
116 
 
Table 9. The category of volunteer work with its concepts and properties 
Category: volunteer work 
Concepts Property 
Choice  Volunteer tourists can choose a project, volunteer tourism 
provider (for profit and non-profit) and/or destination. 
Range  There are a range of projects available from humanitarian 
projects (trying to improve the conditions of life for people 
through health, education, repair, renovation, construction, 
sustainability) to conservation projects (the protection of 
animals, plants, land and buildings) and disaster mitigation. 
Payment  There is some form of payment involved. 
Time The volunteer work is done for a set period of time. 
Purpose The volunteer work serves a purpose for the project, 
provider and volunteer tourist. 
 
 
Evidently, there is more choice in volunteer tourism than there is in traditional 
volunteering. Volunteer tourists can choose where they want to go and how long 
they stay (O?Connor, 2008). Volunteer tourism can be tailored to the individual?s 
interests and knowledge base (Selva, 2008). Volunteer tourists can head to far-
 flung parts of the world to build walls, dig fields and care for animals in wildlife 
sanctuaries, working by day and partying by night (Maxwell, 2006). ?So numerous 
are the volunteer options?, said Michelle Peluso (2007), chief executive of 
Travelocity, ?that many people are confused by the choice?. Although the concept 
of choice is central to the definition of traditional volunteering, it is more limited 
than for volunteer tourism where tourists can choose a destination, project, time 
period, and tourism activities. The Voluntary Service Overseas (VSO, 2007; 2008) 
indicated that volunteer tourists are increasingly approaching them and other 
similar organisations ?as if it was a holiday? and choosing safe destinations.  
 
This choice is made possible because of the ?range of projects? available. In 
traditional volunteering, although there is a wide range of fields such as health and 
social care, sport and employer supported volunteering, projects are limited by 
their aim to benefit the environment or someone (individuals or groups) other than, 
or in addition to, close relatives (Volunteering England, 2008). However in 
volunteer tourism, especially where the provider is a commercial travel company 
117 
 
rather than a non-profit organisation or charity, the projects are travel products 
(Miller, 2007) and clients ?pay? for the services and in return are given access to an 
infrastructure and a placement to suit the traveller, taking into consideration ?time? 
restrictions and ?specific purpose? or requirements. The purpose of projects may 
therefore extend to satisfying the paying tourist and therefore volunteer tourism 
aims to benefit multiple parties (Clemmons, 2008b).   
 
5.4. The concept of tourist 
The concept of ?tourist?, a category of volunteer tourism, was found to encompass 
the many diverse components of: expectations, assumptions, issues, motives and 
awareness of impacts; reflecting the very broad nature of volunteer tourism, as 
shown in Tables 10-13. Responding volunteer tourists expected to pay the 
provider; take a trip for a limited period of time; experience something unique and 
special; as well as do some tourism activities, in addition to the volunteer work 
(see Table 10).  
 
?I think trips are usually between two and six weeks long. The volunteer tourists 
pay a lump sum which covers their travel expenses, food, accommodation, etc.? 
(Laura, South Africa); ?You do some charitable work, for free, whilst on a holiday, 
either that you have paid for, or some charity group has financed, in return for your 
manual input of time? (Theresa, South Africa); another said: ?I believe that the 
most exciting part of travel is exploring and discovering on your own and having a 
unique experience? (Whizzyboots, UK). Furthermore, volunteer tourists expected 
to be in the hands of responsible providers, ?to be safe and to know the risks, 
including political and environmental hazards? (Spikiespike, United Kingdom), and 
to carry out meaningful volunteer work, ?helping contribute to changing someone 
else?s life? (Tammy, Canada). Thoits (2008) comments: ?people want purpose and 
meaning in their lives. One of the ways to find them is to give assistance to the 
community and feel that they?re doing something that matters?, demonstrated by 
one volunteer who said, ?I want to use my last bit of free time doing something I?ve 
never done before and hopefully helping others? (Paperdragon, UK); yet, volunteer 
tourists also want to have some fun and do tourism activities on their volunteer 
vacation: ?I want to see everything in Cape Town, do some extreme things like 
bungee jumping, sand boarding, paragliding, safari? (Toeman, Netherlands). With 
most projects, there is free time to relax, reflect, and explore the community and 
118 
 
destination. Volunteer tourism allows the volunteer tourist to combine good deeds 
with the best aspects of travel: recreational activities, cultural events, culinary 
adventures and even shopping and excursions (Globe Aware, 2007a).  
 
Volunteer tourists have certain assumptions and issues about volunteer tourism as 
shown in Table 11. They assume that volunteer tourism is available to everyone 
because web-sites such as Globe Aware (2007b) state that ?programmes are 
equally appropriate for the solo traveller to multigenerational family travel, 
corporate groups and more?; that the volunteer work itself is unpaid: one tourist 
summed this up by saying: ?It is working in disadvantaged communities in order to 
improve their lot, and broaden one?s own outlook and understanding at the same 
time.  Not earning a salary, possibly receiving accommodation/food/travel, in 
exchange for the donation of one?s time and experience? (Libra, South Africa); that 
it involves travel to a less developed country, ?It is when people go do things like 
build houses for poor people in developing countries instead of lying on the beach 
all day at some resort? (Heather, South Africa); that the experience will have an 
impact on self, the volunteer tourist. A respondent stated: ?It is about helping 
others and growing from the experience? (Duncan, South Africa).   
119 
 
Table 10. The category of tourist with its concept of ?expectations? 
Category: tourist 
Concepts Sub-concepts and properties  
Expectations Payment ? volunteer tourists expect to pay the provider.  
 
 
Time ? volunteer tourists expect the trip to be for a limited period of 
time. 
 
 
 
Experience ? volunteer tourists expect the trip to be unique and special, 
a journey of discovery. 
 
 
 
Additional activities ? volunteer tourists expect to do fun activities 
additional to volunteer work such as excursions. 
 
 
 
Responsible Providers ? volunteer tourists expect the providers to 
be responsible  by: 
? shepherding 
? providing support 
? co-ordinating 
? providing management 
? providing security 
? being ethical  
? developing programmes of merit 
? satisfying project needs 
? making payments to the project 
? ensuring a sustainable development 
? creating a partnership 
? being committed 
? providing support. 
 
 
 
Meaningful volunteer work ? volunteer tourists expect the 
providers to create meaningful work which: 
? uses their skills 
? is of benefit 
? provides contact with the locals 
? provides an authentic experience 
? provides recognition 
? provides support 
? provides respect. 
 
 
 
120 
 
Table 11. The category of tourist with its concepts of ?assumptions? and ?issues? 
Category: tourist 
Concepts Sub-concepts and properties  
 
Assumptions 
 
Available to all ? volunteer tourists believe that anyone can participate including 
the young (16+), gap yearlings, students, post grads, retirees, professionals, 
families, corporate groups, middle aged people, mature people, regular 
volunteers, occasional volunteers, solo travellers, couples, groups. 
 
 
 
Volunteer work is unpaid charity. 
 
 
Movement of volunteers from rich west to poorer developing countries.  
There will be an impact on self ? a long lasting change. . 
 
Issues 
 
? General 
? little accountability 
? no official monitor 
? different points of view 
? prioritisation of the whims of tourists  
? industry is very fragmented with little collaboration. 
 
? For the volunteer tourist  
? choosing a trip is confusing - there is a myriad of pricing structures 
such as discounted projects, free projects but flights excluded, low 
cost etc. 
?  lack of clarity over charitable contribution to the project and how it is 
distributed 
? unsure how to find a reputable project 
? unsure how to get involved  
? bureaucracy - such as reference checks and CRB checks 
? experience not always reflective of website advert 
? variety of work - there can be too little or too much variety of work 
? menial tasks 
? challenge of work - there may not be too much or too little of a 
challenge 
? free time ? volunteer tourists are unsure of how much free time they 
will have 
? resentment between volunteers & ?western? contractors. 
 
  
  
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
121 
 
 Volunteer tourists were also concerned with certain issues such as the confusion 
around finding a reputable project and what work will be required: ?Weeding 
through the myriad of volunteer options can be daunting, it was for me? (Anna, 
Sweden). One volunteer tourist said of not knowing where to start or how to get 
involved:  
 
I have thought about travelling for most of my life.  When I happened to 
cross a volunteer tourism site as I was looking up regular travel options, 
I was floored!  I never really knew there was anything like this out there.  
The problem I have is I don?t know how to go about getting involved.  
I?m not sure if I need degrees, or certain credentials.  I do know that I 
want to travel. I also know that I want to have an in depth experience 
one could only get by actually working with the locals, or helping out 
environmentally (Anonymous, USA). 
 
Volunteer tourists had numerous motives for participating in volunteer tourism as 
shown in Table 12. These range from ?spreading personal beliefs?, ?doing 
something different?, ?networking?, ?visiting a warmer climate?, ?experiencing 
another culture?, to altruism and ?the desire to give back? and ?help others?. One 
volunteer tourist who travelled to South Africa said, ?God called me to do it? (Mark, 
Ireland) and another person said, ?It is the desire to do something good while at 
the same time experiencing new places and challenges in locales one might 
otherwise not visit? (Ali, United Kingdom). Volunteer tourists rarely cited a single 
motivator for participating in volunteer tourism. 
 
The experience brought about by ?engagement? left noticeable impacts on the 
volunteer tourists: ?It hopefully benefits those receiving help and, for the person 
taking part, I would say it is a wonderful and rewarding experience? (Em, United 
Kingdom); ?It is a unique travel experience that promotes self-growth while giving 
something back to wildlife, conservation and community projects in need? (Ed, 
South Africa); ?it is more about changing the person that is going on the trip than it 
is about actually helping the world? (Starlagurl, Canada). The impact on self is 
supported by research into traditional volunteer work and well-being, showing that 
people who volunteered had greater well-being overall (Thoits and Hewitt, 2001). 
Research into volunteer tourism also shows that volunteer tourism profoundly 
122 
 
affects even the most day-to-day elements of the lives of its participants 
(McGehee, 2005). One respondent concurred:  
 
Since my involvement in volunteer tourism and my international travel, 
I?m profoundly affected by the want and misuse of space that I see.  It 
would be really easy just to focus on how bad everything is but I try not 
to do that.  When I came back from Beijing, I sold my house and bought 
a much smaller house, and the kitchen is quite small, we call it our 
European kitchen. You definitely have to do the butt dance in the 
kitchen.  And I think I am much more aware of the impact that we have 
with overspending and the overheating and over-everything.  I recycle 
and reuse and think about things before I buy them....I could go on and 
on....(Maude, United States) 
 
There was evidence that volunteer tourism positively impacts the projects and 
communities too as shown in Table 13. ?Some [volunteer tourists] come away as 
passionate advocates and long-term donors of the communities they have 
interacted with, also with heightened awareness of how our actions have 
consequences on people even thousands of miles away? (Chris, United Kingdom): 
 
While at times during my brief three-day sojourn at Mirror I felt 
inadequate, useless and under-prepared, there was one moment when 
my skills came to the fore, and finally I understood the value of my 
contribution. A group of about 20 volunteers, including myself and Paul, 
some Japanese students and a bunch of local Akha scholarship kids, 
headed into the Chiang Rai night market to hand out leaflets to western 
tourists, pointing out the dangers associated with giving money to child 
beggars (Julie, Australia). 
123 
 
Table 12. The category of tourist with its concept of ?motivations? 
Category: tourist 
Concepts Sub-concepts and properties   
Motivation ? to do something different  
? to explore  
? to do something special  
? to  become actively involved 
? to see another part of the world 
? to see another culture 
? cultural immersion 
? cultural exchange  
? a challenge  
? the thing to do  
? to learn  
? to escape  
? to visit a warmer climate  
? to develop one?s career  
? to network  
? to meet new people and develop friendships  
? to go on a family holiday and instil values  
? to spread personal beliefs ? primarily religious 
? altruism  
? wanting to serve others 
? to improve other people?s lives 
? to give back 
? to help  
? to  give time  
? to allow others to benefit from one?s skills  
? to support  
? to positively impact. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
124 
 
Table 13. The category of tourist with its concept of ?impacts? 
Category: tourist 
Concept Sub-concepts and properties  
Impacts ? On project/community 
? economic benefits  
? cultivate peace 
? change image of foreigners 
? conflict between communities 
? displacement 
? increased pride 
? resentment 
? exploitation 
? repeated disruptions in attachment (between volunteers and children) on projects involving children 
? local corruption 
? uneven development due to popularity of some projects more than others. 
 
 
 
? On volunteer tourist 
? Behaviour  
? give donations to the project  
? make the personal political  
? visit ?been-to? cliques  
? network ties 
? new friends 
? continued involvement in volunteer work  
? bear witness and become advocates  
? reverse culture shock - difficulty finding/resuming work or study, getting used to the pace of life, social difficultly, 
loneliness, depression 
? participation in social movements at home. 
? Attitudes, confidence and capabilities  
? self efficacy 
? increased confidence and esteem  
? sense of accomplishment  
? greater emotional and intellectual maturity 
? self-actualisation  
? wider global perspectives  
? transformed attitudes 
? greater flexibility  
? greater appreciation for the consequences of human action on the environment and communities  
? find own culture 
? rethink life philosophy 
? sense of control over life. 
? Emotions   
? inner peace  
? depression  
? aggression 
? different levels of stress  
? feel good for doing more 
? energised to do more  
? anger  
? disillusionment  
? more motivated  
? greater satisfaction with life  
? greater well-being 
? happiness. 
? Physical  
? improvement in health  
? detrimental to health. 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
? On country of residence 
?  Resources diverted elsewhere. 
 
 
 
 
 
  
125 
 
However, there are instances of exploitation if projects are not carefully planned 
and managed (Archer and Cooper, 1994; Theobald, 1994):   
 
It was disheartening to have travelled 5,000 miles away only to find that 
all I?m really here for now is money and assets. Everything we give to 
the children is snatched and more demanded. Should a child receive a 
new pencil, their friend will want one. There is aggression and so many 
kids will fight, lie and haggle to get what they want, be it fruit, chocolate 
or stationery (Tom, United Kingdom);  
 
?I visited one school in Malawi where the head teacher said she took Western 
volunteers because they were cheaper than paying local staff? (Kate, United 
Kingdom).  
 
Furthermore, Richter and Norman (2010) initiated a recent debate on children-
 based projects suggesting that caring for Aids orphans could be doing more harm 
than good because of the evidence collected from children in temporary or 
unstable foster care. These studies indicate that repeated disruptions in 
attachment are extremely disturbing for children, especially very young children (p. 
217). However, although Richter and Norman have identified serious issues 
relating to interaction with children, Christopher Hill, Founder of Hands Up 
Holidays, responds: ?Any interaction with the vulnerable, including children, 
disabled people and the elderly, needs to be tightly and carefully managed. We 
support a Voluntourism Code of Conduct to regulate the industry and help ensure 
that only ethical organisations that have the local people?s interests at heart will 
survive - and prosper. As with many things, there are risks involved and yet these 
should not mean that voluntourism needs to stop, if managed properly, it can be 
powerfully enriching for both the participants and the host communities? 
(Christopher Hill, UK). 
 
So although volunteer tourism raises some contentious issues, it can offer an 
alternative to mainstream tourism in that it has the potential to help children, 
communities and the environment in a less commoditised form than mainstream 
tourism; with less emphasis on the bottom line and profit and greater emphasis on 
social objectives and human rights such as the right to work or to have a decent 
126 
 
standard of living over that of economic value (Wearing, 2001). As a result, the 
growth of volunteer tourism is seen as an opportunity to provide a new source of 
labour, ideas and funding to important projects, as well as a chance to develop a 
greater understanding of cultures and environments among participants (Ministry 
of Tourism, New Zealand, 2007) and hence its potential use for sustainable 
tourism development (PATA, 2006). Volunteer tourism, therefore, has the means 
to bring long-term benefits to residents and tourists alike, a symbiotic relationship 
which places a great deal of responsibility with providers (Clemmons, 2008a). 
 
5.5. Trustworthiness of the findings and the 
limitations of this study 
One objective of this study was to understand volunteer tourism using Glaser?s 
grounded theory. The theoretical explanation that emerged from the data holds up 
to Glaser?s (1998) criteria for judging the adequacy of the emerging explanation: 
fitness to the situation, workability and modifiability. The explanation and the 
concepts that gave rise to it were grounded in the experiences of volunteer 
tourists, volunteer tourism providers and other stakeholders, the perceptions of 
tourists, and research into the different aspects of volunteer tourism such as 
motives, experiences and impacts; it thus ?fits? the situation. It also ?works? because 
it helps people make sense of their experience and to manage the situation better. 
For example, one volunteer tourism provider reviewed its web-based project 
sheets to include the volunteer tourist?s financial contribution to the project. 
However, researchers will readily agree that their own theoretical formulation 
represents their own interpretations of the data, which could be interpreted 
differently by others. 
 
5.6. Conclusion of this chapter 
What has so far emerged to describe volunteer tourism is the key category of 
?engagement?, necessarily associated with two other emerging categories of 
?volunteer work? and ?tourist?.  
 
These categories together provided the encompassing explanation of volunteer 
tourism as ?engagement in volunteer work as a tourist?, pointing to a purposeful 
connection to particular peoples and places. The researcher played a major role in 
127 
 
arriving at this explanation as the concepts were her own and emerged as a result 
of her systematic searching for themes within primary and secondary data. She 
feels this subjectivity limitation was addressed by the extensive data collected and 
the visibility and audit ability of the detailed process in arriving at the emerged 
theoretical explanation. Many quotations were used in the chapter, giving readers 
the opportunity to interpret the data themselves, following the trail and hopefully 
arriving at a similar explanation and by doing so confirming the trustworthiness of 
the findings. 
  
Glaser?s grounded theory offers a new explanation for volunteer tourism and, at 
the same time, allows its deconstruction into constituent elements, providing a 
greater understanding of volunteer tourism and offering a contribution to 
knowledge. Additionally, the deconstruction of the core category of engagement 
builds on Alexander and Bakir?s (2011) components of ?Relate-Dedicate-Donate? 
used to describe engagement in volunteer tourism. The following chapter 
examines the results of stage two, the personality inventory. 
  
128 
 
6. CHAPTER SIX - personality inventory and analysis 
 
 
Chapter six describes the context of the volunteer tourism experience for those 
Aviva volunteers participating in wildlife and conservation projects as well as 
community projects in South Africa. Thereafter, it describes the participants and 
later determines the changes in those participants as a result of their volunteering 
experience; it additionally examines the influence of age, gender, project type, 
length of stay, and time elapsed post-trip on the experience.  
 
6.1. The context 
The sample used for the research involved three elements: the volunteer tourism 
provider, the volunteers and the control group. What follows is a description of 
each, providing the setting for this research, within the South African context 
discussed in chapter two. 
 
6.1.1. The volunteer tourism provider and the projects 
The volunteer tourism provider, Aviva, is a commercial business based in Cape 
Town, South Africa. It was established in 2002 and employs ten full-time staff.  
Aviva provides international volunteers access to 14 projects ranging from wildlife 
and conservation projects to children and community type projects, summarised in 
Tables 14 and 15 respectively. Aviva provides off-site accommodation for 
volunteers and transports them to and from their place of work. Aviva additionally 
offers volunteers optional tourist activities to occupy their spare time such as 
vineyard tours, tours of the Cape peninsula, cultural tours, scuba diving and many 
more. According to Callanan and Thomas (2005) framework of providers, they are 
?intermediate? suppliers because they focus on promoting the project as well as 
travel opportunities for the volunteers. They promote both the financial success of 
the project along with the project?s contribution to the community.  
129 
 
Table 14. The wildlife and conservation projects offered by Aviva  
Name of project Tasks carried out by volunteers Accommodation 
Balule 
Conservation 
Data capture on the regular morning and evening drives, 
and vegetation data capture on foot. 
On-site 
Endangered 
Wildlife 
Monitoring 
Track and locate endangered species using radio 
telemetry tracking equipment, radio collaring, relocation 
and re-introduction of game, update animal identikits, 
carry out game counts, assist with alien plant control and 
bird ringing. 
On-site 
Inkwenkwezi 
Conservation 
Involved in the reserve's lion cub rearing program; they 
also carry out other tasks including species identification 
and interpretation, preparing a catalogue of the birds, 
fence patrols for snares and other threats to wildlife, 
game counts, mammal research and monitoring, and 
alien vegetation control. 
On-site 
Penguin 
Conservation 
Boat release programmes at Robben Island as well as 
participate in feeding and tube feeding birds. 
Aviva House 
Tamboti 
Conservation 
Hands-on biodiversity and practical conservation work in 
the African bush. 
On-site 
Vervet Monkey 
Sanctuary 
Rehabilitating vervet monkeys, hand-rearing orphans (in 
baby season), building new enclosures, collecting, 
chopping and delivering food for monkeys, monitoring and 
report writing of monkeys around the sanctuary, cleaning 
monkey cages, washing feed bowls and plates and 
cleaning blankets, assisting with introductions and 
rehabilitation of new monkeys, assisting with basic 
medical practices and administering medications. 
On-site 
Whale & Dolphin 
Research 
A wide range of tasks depending on what is required at 
the time. 
On-site 
Wild Coast 
Horses 
Work alongside a team; volunteers are actively involved 
in the rehabilitation of abused horses. The centre runs on 
a well structured routine involving preparing feed, 
grooming, examining horses, helping with exercising and 
schooling of the horses, cleaning and replenishing water 
troughs and mucking out. 
On-site 
 
 
  
130 
 
Table 15. The children and community projects offered by Aviva  
Name of project Tasks carried out by volunteers Accommodation 
African School 
Feeding Scheme 
Prepare a daily nutritious meal for approximately 100 
children. 
Aviva House 
Baphumelele 
Children's Home 
Play an active role in the development of young children, 
assist with looking after the younger children (0-5 yrs), 
particularly with child development, laundry, washing, 
feeding, food collection and a variety of other support 
tasks. 
Aviva House 
Home of Hope 
interim place of 
safety for babies 
and young 
children 
abandoned, 
abused, 
neglected, raped 
or infected with 
HIV 
Involved with the daily care giving to the children, helping 
with preparing breakfasts, lunch, snacks, dinners and 
formula feeds, cleaning and sterilising the bottles used 
during the day, feeding babies and toddlers, giving 
medication, recording and evaluating babies and toddlers 
according to their milestones, changing nappies, bathing 
and stimulating babies and toddlers according to a set 
programme. 
Aviva House 
Masigcine 
Children's Home 
(place of safety 
for abandoned 
and orphaned 
children) 
Take part in various activities assisting the caregivers with 
their daily tasks 
Aviva House 
Wild Coast 
Schools 
Play a vital role in the introduction of computer literacy 
skills and a sports program to a number of rural schools. 
Aviva House 
Zeekoevlei 
outdoor based 
education 
programme 
Assist as guides and educators in charge of small groups 
of youth for a 3 day/2 night periods. 
On-site 
 
131 
 
6.1.2. The participants 
 
The volunteers 
The 60 volunteer tourists consisted of 10 men and 50 women. There were 44 of 
16-29 years of age and 16 of 30+ years; the percentages are represented in 
Figures 5 and 6 respectively.  
 
 
 
Figure 5. The number of participants by gender. 
 
 
 
Figure 6. The number of participants by age group. 
 
 
The participants spent an average of ?4163 on their trip, including air fares, and 
stayed a mean average of ten weeks in South Africa, median 6.5 weeks. The most 
popular lengths of stays were four, six weeks and 12 weeks. Thus most visitors 
volunteered for longer than one month. This is in line with academic research and 
industry figures (tabulated on page 135). The visitors volunteered for 59% of their 
17% 
83% 
Male Female 
73% 
27% 
16-29 30+ 
132 
 
holiday time; whilst weekends were spent relaxing and engaging in tourism 
activities such as shark-diving, clubbing, sightseeing and shopping. The majority of 
volunteers (62%) participated in children and community projects, a further 35% in 
wildlife and conservation projects, with the balance (3%) participating in both. 
 
When volunteers were asked ?why are you participating in this type of holiday?? 
the responses ranged from the desire to ?help others? (altruism) to wanting to ?get 
away and travel? (self enhancement). A summary of the key themes of motivation 
are listed in Table 16. 
 
 
Table 16. A summary of the motives of the volunteers 
No. Key themes of motivation 
   
1 To help others 
2 Do something I have never done before 
3 Do something different 
4 Do something rewarding 
5 Do something challenging 
6 Always wanted to do volunteering 
7 Want to give something back 
8 To learn 
9 To serve a community 
10 Get experience/career 
11 Be independent 
12 Enjoy volunteering 
13 To achieve something 
14 To make a difference 
15 Interest in SA 
16 To see new things 
17 Adventure 
18 To get something out of my travels 
19 Cultural Immersion 
20 To get away/travel 
21 To help me appreciate what I have 
22 Love  animals 
23 Love kids 
24 Want a non-commercial holiday 
25 To do something useful 
26 Roots in SA, family etc 
27 Safest place in Africa to volunteer 
28 Reviews from past volunteers visiting to SA. 
 
 
These motivation themes are not unique to this research, they are consistent with 
those identified by Brown (2005), Coghlan (2006a; 2006b), Gecko et al. (2009), 
Lepp (2009), McGehee et al. (2009), Benson and Seibert (2009), Sin (2009), 
Wearing (2001) and Wickens (2011), as shown earlier in Table 6. Similarly to 
Brown (2005), different types of volunteer tourists emerged: the ?volunteer-minded? 
133 
 
and the ?vacation-minded? tourist. Evidence of this is reflected in the statements of 
volunteers, one saw volunteer tourism as ?the opportunity to travel....this is the 
most cost effective way to travel far and do a lot in a short time period, I will get to 
do more than most tourists who come to the foreign country? (Kbscharf, United 
States) whilst another saw it as ?an opportunity to do something worthwhile........ 
knowing that I?m going to be helping the local wildlife, and make a difference, 
however small that difference may be? (Willbuttery, UK). 
 
With regard to the occupation of the participants, the largest group were students 
followed by professionals, managers, administrative and secretarial roles, 
caring/leisure, unskilled, gap year and others illustrated in Figure 7, by percentage. 
The occupational groups were derived from those used by the Department of 
Trade and Industry, in the United Kingdom.   
 
 
Figure 7. The number of participants by occupation. 
 
 
Admin/secretary 
7% 
Associate 
Professional 
1% Caring/leisure 
industry 
7% 
Gap year 
3% 
Homemaker 
2% 
Manager/senior 
official 
10% 
Professional 
18% 
Retired 
3% 
Sales and 
Customer 
Service 
2% 
Skilled Trade 
2% 
Student 
32% 
Unclear 
8% 
Unskilled 
5% 
134 
 
 
Figure 8. The number of participants by country of origin. 
 
 
Participants were visiting South Africa from all over the world as shown in Figure 
8. The greatest percentages were from the United Kingdom, followed by USA, 
Europe, Australia and New Zealand, Canada and South Africa. 
 
Importantly, to enhance the external validity of the results from this study, the 
sample was compared to the population from which it was drawn (see chapter 
one). Both the population and sample showed similar characteristics. Furthermore, 
the characteristics of the Aviva volunteers, particularly on age, gender and 
occupation, are similar to those found in other volunteer tourism research as well 
as industry figures (refer to Bailey and Russell, 2010; Gecko et al., 2009; Harlow 
and Pomfret, 2007; Lepp, 2008; Lough et al., 2009a; McIntosh and Zahra, 2007; 
Sin, 2009; Wearing, 2001; Zahra, 2006, 2011); these studies are summarised in 
Table 17.  
  
 
  
Australia 
10% 
Canada 
7% 
Germany 
1% 
Ireland 
7% 
Netherlands 
7% 
Norway 
2% NZ 
3% 
South Africa 
2% 
UK 
41% 
USA 
20% 
135 
 
Table 17. The characteristics of samples of other volunteer tourism research  
Study and title Sample size versus population, 
sample type and data type 
Characteristics of the sample 
Bailey and Russell, 2010 
 
Interpersonal Growth in 
Volunteer Tourism: A latent 
Curve Approach 
192 versus 288 per spring break. 
 
Type of sample: opportunity.  
Type of data: quantitative. 
 
Data collected:  pre-, post-trip and 
follow-up four weeks later. 
Gender: 66.6% F, 33.3% M. 
Age: young adults (18-26 years). 
Average spends: not specified. 
Average length of stay: nine days. 
% of time on the project: not specified. 
Project type: community, in US, Minneapolis 
Occupation: students. 
Country of origin: USA, Washington. 
Broad, 2003 
 
Living the Thai Life ? A Case 
Study of Volunteer Tourism at 
the Gibbon Rehabilitation 
Project, Thailand 
Not specified. 
 
Type of sample: opportunity.  
Type of data: qualitative. 
 
Data collected on-site. 
Gender: not specified. 
Age: Mainly young adults. 
Average spends: not specified. 
Average length of stay: three weeks to 26 weeks. 
% of time on the project: 86%. 
Project type: Wildlife, Thailand 
Occupation: Not specified. 
Country of origin: USA, UK. 
Gecko et al., 2009 
 
Volunteer Travel Insights ? 
Past Volunteering 
Experiences Abroad 
2481 versus unknown number 
across Europe, N. America, and 
Asia. 
 
Type of sample: opportunity. 
Type of data: quantitative. 
 
Data collected pre-trip, on-site, or 
post-trip. 
Gender: 66% F, 34% M. 
Age: 70% (? 34 years), 30% (>34 years). 
Average spends: 37% > 1000USD. 
Average length of stay: 51% >one month, 49% ? one 
month. 
% of time on the project: not specified. 
Project type: 79% community work, 21% 
conservation. Preference for S. America (45%) and 
Asia/Pacific (18%), South Africa (8%).  
Occupation: not specified. 
Country of origin: United Kingdom & Europe (51%), 
America (28%), Asia/Pacific (13%), Africa (2%), 
Middle East (1%), and no answer (5%).  
Harlow and Pomfret, 2007 
 
Evolving Environmental 
Tourism Experiences in 
Zambia 
 
Seven versus 14 per expedition. 
 
Type of sample: random. 
Type of data: qualitative. 
 
Data collected on-site. 
Gender: 86% F, 14% M. 
Age: young adults (18-25 years). 
Average spends: not specified. 
Average length of stay: ten weeks. 
% of time on the project: not specified. 
Project type: conservation, in Zambia. 
Occupation: students. 
Country of origin: UK. 
Laythorpe, 2009 
 
Sustainable Living in a Third 
World Country: Experiences 
of Long Term Volunteers in 
the Kilimanjaro Region of 
Tanzania 
Not specified. 
 
Type of sample: opportunity. 
Type of data: qualitative. 
 
Data collected post-trip. 
Gender: cross-section. 
Age: cross-section. 
Average spends: not specified. 
Average length of stay: greater than 6 months. 
% of time on the project: not specified. 
Project type: community, in Tanzania. 
Occupation: cross-section. 
Country of origin: USA and UK. 
Lepp, 2008 
 
Discovering Self and 
Discovering Others Through 
Seven (3 conservation, 4 
community) versus seven 
available during the researcher?s 
2.5 weeks (programme facilitates 
Gender: 71% F, 29% M. 
Age: specified only as young adults. 
Average spends: not specified. 
Average length of stay: one to four months. 
136 
 
the Taita Discovery Centre 
Tourism Programme, Kenya 
approximately 40 per year on the 
conservation programme and 15 
per year on community project). 
 
Type of sample: opportunity. 
Type of data: qualitative. 
 
Data collected 3 months post-trip. 
% of time on the project: not specified. 
Project type: conservation and community, in Kenya. 
Occupation: three students, one recent graduate, 
three working professionals. 
Country of origin: Canada, France, Denmark, 
Belgium, and Japan. 
McGehee and Santos, 2005 
 
Social Change, discourse 
and volunteer tourism 
16 versus all volunteers of 3 
organisations: AJWS, 
WorldPULSE, MIUSA. 
 
Type of sample: opportunity. 
Type of data: qualitative. 
 
Data collected 3-5 yrs post-trip. 
Gender: 78% F, 22% M. 
Age: 20 to 60 years. 
Average spends: not specified. 
Average length of stay: two weeks to nine months. 
% of time on the project: not specified. 
Project type: community projects around the world. 
Occupation: not specified. 
Country of origin: USA. 
McIntosh and Zahra, 2007 
 
A Cultural Encounter through 
Volunteer Tourism: Towards 
the Ideals of Sustainable 
Tourism 
 
12 versus 15 volunteers, from one 
two-week project organised by an 
Australian NGO. 
 
 
Type of sample: opportunity. 
Type of data: qualitative. 
 
Data collected pre-, on-site and 
immediately post-trip. 
Gender: 100% F. 
Age: 16 to 19 years. 
Average spends: not specified. 
Average length of stay: two weeks. 
% of time on the project: not specified. 
Project type: community project in New Zealand. 
Occupation: not specified. 
Country of origin: Australia. 
Sin, 2009 
 
Volunteer Tourism ? ?Involve 
me and I will Learn?? 
11 versus 12 from one exploration 
trip to South Africa. 
 
 
Type of sample: opportunity. 
Type of data: qualitative. 
 
Data collected pre-trip, on-site, 
and informally two years later. 
Gender: 36% F, 27% M, balance not specified. 
Age: not specified. 
Average spends: US$2649 + personal expenses. 
Average length of stay: 26 days. 
% of time on the project: 50%. 
Project type: community project in South Africa. 
Occupation: students. 
Country of origin: Singapore. 
Wearing, 2001 
 
Volunteer Tourism, 
Experiences that make a 
Difference 
12 versus 12 of one group on the 
SERR project. 
 
 
Type of sample: opportunity. 
Type of data: qualitative.  
 
Respondents were interviewed 
after an undisclosed period of 
time. 
Gender: 67% F, 8% M, balance not specified. 
Age: average 21-22 years. 
Average spends: not specified. 
Average length of stay: three months. 
% of time on the project: not specified. 
Project type: conservation and community project. 
Occupation: students/gap year students. 
Country of origin: Australia, Canada, Costa Rica. 
Wickens, 2011 
 
Journeys of the Self: 
Volunteer Tourists in Nepal 
46 versus total on project. 
 
 
Type of sample: opportunity. 
Type of data: qualitative.  
 
Data collected on-site. 
Gender: not specified. 
Age: not specified. 
Average spends: not specified. 
Average length of stay: not specified. 
% of time on the project: not specified. 
Project type: community project in Nepal. 
Occupation: students/gap year students and 
professionals. 
137 
 
Country of origin: not specified. 
Zahra, 2006, 2011 
 
The Unexpected Road to 
Spirituality via Volunteer 
Tourism (2006) 
 
Volunteer tourism as a life-
 changing experience (2011) 
6-10 versus unspecified total 
group size for project/s. 
 
 
Type of sample: opportunity. 
Type of data: qualitative.  
 
Data collected 4-18 yrs post-trip. 
 
Gender: not specified. 
Age: 16 to 26 years when they participated. 
Average spends: not specified. 
Average length of stay: three to four weeks. 
% of time on the project: not specified, only mentions 
downtime for beach trips and festival. 
Project type: community project in Asia and Pacific. 
Occupation: not specified, only that they come from 
affluent, urbanised, developed and secular societies. 
Country of origin: Australia and New Zealand. 
Zahra and McIntosh, 2007 
 
Volunteer Tourism: Evidence 
of Cathartic Tourist 
Experiences 
5 versus unspecified total group 
size for project. 
 
 
 
Type of sample: opportunity. 
Type of data: qualitative.  
 
Data collected 4-14 yrs post-trip. 
Gender: 100% F. 
Age: 17-26 years when they participated. 
Average spends: not specified. 
Average length of stay: two to four weeks. 
% of time on the project: not specified. 
Project type: community project in Asia and Pacific. 
Occupation: not specified. 
Country of origin: Australia, New Zealand and 
Canada. 
 
  
The control group 
The smaller control group comprised a further 35 people who roughly matched the 
volunteers on age, gender and socio-economic variables such as education and 
occupation.  
 
Importantly, the control group matched the volunteers on the majority of trait 
scores at the start. Table 18 shows the results of the Mann-Whitney U-tests 
carried out on both groups, the results revealed no significant differences in 14 of 
15 traits. However, there was a significant difference in one trait - ?vulnerability?. 
The control group had a lower median score on this trait than the volunteer group 
(8 versus 10.5), see Figure 9.  
 
According to the trait definitions described earlier in chapter four, the control group 
were more poised, confident and clear-thinking when stressed than the volunteer 
group. This difference may explain why the volunteers chose to participate in 
volunteer tourism in the first place. A psychological theory ? optimal arousal ? 
suggests that the volunteer tourism could be perceived to provide the types of 
activities that would satisfy their needs (Iso-Ahola, 1982). In other words, increase 
their confidence levels and ability to deal with stressful situations. The implication 
138 
 
of this trait difference is such that any changes in the volunteers, identified post-
 trip could be attributed to the differences in this trait at the start. 
 
 
Table 18. Mann-Whitney U-test results for pre-test scores of volunteers & control 
Trait U P (two-tailed) z Samples significantly different? 
        n? = 60 and n? = 35 
Anxiety 1217.0 0.198 1.288 No - P>=0.05 
Trust 1104.0 0.681 0.417 No - P>=0.05 
Self-Efficacy 1199.5 0.249 1.153 No - P>=0.05 
Artistic Interests 1290.5 0.063 1.856 No - P>=0.05 
Depression 1290.0 0.064 1.852 No - P>=0.05 
Assertiveness 1257.0 0.111 1.597 No - P>=0.05 
Emotionality 1266.0 0.095 1.666 No - P>=0.05 
Altruism 1271.5 0.087 1.709 No - P>=0.05 
Dutifulness 1086.5 0.779 0.282 No - P>=0.05 
Activity Level 1301.5 0.051 1.940 No - P>=0.05 
Adventurousness 1107.5 0.659 0.444 No - P>=0.05 
Intellect 1131.0 0.533 0.625 No - P>=0.05 
Vulnerability 1317.5 0.038 2.064 Marginally - P<=0.05 
Liberalism 1101.5 0.694 0.397 No - P>=0.05 
Cautiousness 1059.0 0.948 0.069 No - P>=0.05 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 9. The pre-scores of the volunteers and control group. 
 
 
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6 
8 
10 
12 
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Controls pre-scores 
139 
 
6.2. The IPIP-NEO 60-item version personality 
inventory 
As the 60-item version of the IPIP-NEO personality inventory was used to collect 
data from the participants, an important consideration was to verify its reliability, by 
trait. The reliability figures of the standardised 120-item version, highlighted in the 
methodology chapter, were directly applied to the shorter version because it 
retained the same questions per trait. The only difference between the two 
versions was that the 120-item version measures 30 traits whereas the 60-item 
version measures 15. The reliability of the IPIP-NEO 60-item version was 
confirmed using the test-retest method (Albery et al., 2003). In order to do this, the 
matched control group (of 35) were used to test for similar scores over two points 
in time, within the recommended time periods discussed in chapter four of 
between three months and six years apart. Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks 
tests were carried out on the data.  
 
The results of the tests, Table 19, show for all but one trait, ?assertiveness?, there 
were no significant differences over a six month period between the controls first 
and second test median scores, illustrated in Figure 10. With regard to the 
assertiveness trait, it is important to note that any changes in the volunteers post-
 trip may not be sufficiently reliable to draw definitive conclusions (discussed in 
chapter eight). However, the researcher carried out the test-retest over a shorter 
period of time than for the IPIP-NEO 120 version (six months versus one year) and 
on a much smaller group of people (35 versus 21,588), which may account for the 
differences in the first versus second test scores for the control group. 
Nevertheless, for all the other traits, the results of the test-retest provided 
confidence in the IPIP-NEO 60-item version personality inventory, to use it as a 
tool to measure some of the effects of a volunteer tourism experience.  
 
 
  
140 
 
Table 19. Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test results for control group 
Trait W+ W- N P  
Samples significantly 
different? 
Anxiety 210.0 196.0 28 0.882 No - P>=0.05 
Trust 170.0 208.0 27 0.657 No - P>=0.05 
Self-Efficacy 135.0 243.0 27 0.199 No - P>=0.05 
Artistic Interests 161.0 274.0 29 0.226 No - P>=0.05 
Depression 236.5 259.5 31 0.829 No - P>=0.05 
Assertiveness 95.5 282.5 27 0.025 Yes - P<=0.05 
Emotionality 109.5 268.5 27 0.058 No - P>=0.05 
Altruism 127.0 173.0 24 0.520 No - P>=0.05 
Dutifulness 77.5 112.5 19 0.490 No - P>=0.05 
Activity Level 131.5 168.5 24 0.607 No - P>=0.05 
Adventurousness 177.0 123.0 24 0.449 No - P>=0.05 
Intellect 182.5 282.5 30 0.309 No - P>=0.05 
Vulnerability 202.0 176.0 27 0.764 No - P>=0.05 
Liberalism 217.0 134.0 26 0.298 No - P>=0.05 
Cautiousness 111.0 165.0 23 0.420 No - P>=0.05 
 
 
 
 
Figure 10. The pre- and post-scores of the control group. 
 
 
  
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2 
4 
6 
8 
10 
12 
14 
16 
18 
M
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Personality traits 
Controls pre-scores 
Controls post-scores 
141 
 
6.3. Changes in personality traits 
 
6.3.1. Statistical results 
The IPIP-NEO 60-item version was then used to collect data from 60 volunteer 
tourists completed prior to the trip and again after the volunteer vacation. 
  
Subsequent personality changes, determined by measuring fifteen core traits, 
were compared with a matched (control) group of 35. The process of drawing 
conclusions from the study involved a number of comparisons between the first 
and second test scores for each group (intra-group) as well as between the 
volunteer group and control (inter-group).  
 
Table 20 shows the results of the Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks tests 
carried out on the volunteers? pre- and post-trip test scores. The results show 
significant differences between the volunteers? first and second scores on nine 
personality traits out of 15, illustrated in Figure 11: anxiety (decreased), trust 
(increased), artistic interests (increased), depression (decreased), assertiveness 
(increased), emotionality (increased), activity levels (increased), adventurousness 
(increased) and vulnerability (decreased).   
 
 
Table 20. The impact of volunteer tourism on 15 personality traits  
Trait W+ W- N P  
Samples significantly 
different? 
Anxiety 1309.5 343.5 57 0.000 Yes - P<=0.05 
Trust 404.5 973.5 52 0.010 Yes - P<=0.05 
Self-Efficacy 387.5 693.5 46 0.095 No - P>=0.05 
Artistic Interests 293.5 652.5 43 0.031 Yes - P<=0.05 
Depression 897.0 279.0 48 0.002 Yes - P<=0.05 
Assertiveness 360.0 915.0 50 0.007 Yes - P<=0.05 
Emotionality 333.5 701.5 45 0.038 Yes - P<=0.05 
Altruism 291.5 569.5 41 0.073 No - P>=0.05 
Dutifulness 300.0 480.0 39 0.212 No - P>=0.05 
Activity Level 302.0 923.0 49 0.002 Yes - P<=0.05 
Adventurousness 392.0 986.0 52 0.007 Yes - P<=0.05 
Intellect 481.0 695.0 48 0.275 No - P>=0.05 
Vulnerability 1137.0 403.0 55 0.002 Yes - P<=0.05 
Liberalism 538.5 589.5 47 0.791 No - P>=0.05 
Cautiousness 620.0 605.0 49 0.945 No - P>=0.05 
 
142 
 
 
 
Figure 11. The pre- and post-scores of the volunteers. 
 
 
Table 19 showed just one of the personality traits, assertiveness, was significantly 
different (increased) amongst the control group over a similar period of six months. 
One would expect very little difference in the first and second test scores of the 
control group if nothing happened to them during that time. Interviews carried out 
with the control group offer some insight as to why this trait may have changed 
(chapter eight). The implications of this change amongst the control group were 
such that any changes, in this trait amongst the volunteers, may be attributed to 
day-to-day life rather than the volunteer experience. 
  
Figure 12 displays the significant differences between the pre- and post-trip test 
scores of the volunteer group taking into account the above, the influence of day-
 to-day events (as with assertiveness); as well as the differences between the 
volunteers and control group measured at the start of this study (as with 
vulnerability). The remaining personality traits highly likely to be impacted by the 
volunteer tourism experience alone are: anxiety, trust, artistic interests, 
depression, emotionality, activity levels and adventurousness. Interviews carried 
out with the volunteers offer some insight as to why these seven traits may have 
changed (see chapter eight).  
 
 
0 
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4 
6 
8 
10 
12 
14 
16 
18 
20 
M
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Personality traits 
Volunteers pre-scores 
Volunteers post-scores 
143 
 
  
 
Figure 12. The pre- and post-scores of the volunteers ? remaining traits. 
 
 
 
6.4. Age, gender, project type, length of stay and 
time elapsed post-trip 
Statistical analyses were done on age differences and whether different age 
groups were affected differently by the trip; similarly for gender; project type - 
wildlife and conservation versus community projects; length of stay; and time 
elapsed post-trip.  
 
6.4.1. The influence of age 
The results of the Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks tests, carried out on the 
pre- and post-trip test scores, show that the different age groups are influenced 
differently by the volunteering experience as seen in Table 21 versus 22. The 
probability of the younger age group of 16-29 years being impacted is higher for all 
traits apart from ?liberalism? and ?cautiousness?, illustrated in Figure 13; for which 
the 30+ group were more likely to be impacted, but not significantly.  
 
 
  
0 
2 
4 
6 
8 
10 
12 
14 
16 
18 
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Personality traits 
Volunteers pre-scores 
Volunteers post-scores 
144 
 
Table 21. The differences between the pre- and post-test by trait ? age 16-29 
Trait W+ W- N P  
Samples significantly 
different? 
Anxiety 754.5 148.5 42 0.000 Yes - P<=0.05 
Trust 200.0 580.0 39 0.008 Yes - P<=0.05 
Self-Efficacy 213.0 348.0 33 0.231 No - P>=0.05 
Artistic Interests 163.5 364.5 32 0.062 No - P>=0.05 
Depression 534.5 131.5 36 0.002 Yes - P<=0.05 
Assertiveness 216.5 603.5 40 0.009 Yes - P<=0.05 
Emotionality 159.0 306.0 30 0.133 No - P>=0.05 
Altruism 156.0 372.0 32 0.044 Yes - P<=0.05 
Dutifulness 177.0 319.0 31 0.167 No - P>=0.05 
Activity Level 133.0 517.0 35 0.001 Yes - P<=0.05 
Adventurousness 163.0 540.0 37 0.005 Yes - P<=0.05 
Intellect 291.5 449.5 38 0.255 No - P>=0.05 
Vulnerability 568.5 211.5 39 0.013 Yes - P<=0.05 
Liberalism 326.5 303.5 35 0.857 No - P>=0.05 
Cautiousness 315.5 350.5 36 0.789 No - P>=0.05 
 
 
 
Table 22. The differences between the pre- and post-test by trait ? age 30+ 
Trait W+ W- N P  
Samples significantly 
different? 
Anxiety 83.0 37.0 15 0.208 No - P>=0.05 
Trust 38.0 53.0 13 0.636 No - P>=0.05 
Self-Efficacy 28.5 62.5 13 0.244 No - P>=0.05 
Artistic Interests 22.0 44.0 11 0.365 No - P>=0.05 
Depression 49.0 29.0 12 0.470 No - P>=0.05 
Assertiveness 20.5 34.5 10 0.492 No - P>=0.05 
Emotionality 34.5 85.5 15 0.151 No - P>=0.05 
Altruism 21.0 24.0 9 0.910 No - P>=0.05 
Dutifulness 17.0 19.0 8 0.945 No - P>=0.05 
Activity Level 45.0 60.0 14 0.670 No - P>=0.05 
Adventurousness 50.0 70.0 15 0.600 No - P>=0.05 
Intellect 26.5 28.5 10 0.922 No - P>=0.05 
Vulnerability 102.5 33.5 16 0.074 No - P>=0.05 
Liberalism 29.5 48.5 12 0.470 No - P>=0.05 
Cautiousness 55.0 36.0 13 0.542 No - P>=0.05 
 
 
145 
 
 
Figure 13. The % of the time we would expect to obtain these results, by age. 
 
 
6.4.2. The influence of gender 
The majority of volunteer tourists in this study were female (83% versus 17%); 
similar to many other volunteer tourism studies, as shown earlier in Table 17.  
 
The results of the Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks tests, carried out on the 
pre- and post-trip test scores, show that the different gender groups are influenced 
differently by the volunteering experience, see Table 23 and 24. The probability of 
females being impacted is higher for anxiety (decreased), self-efficacy (increased), 
depression (decreased), assertiveness (increased), emotionality (increased), 
activity (increased), adventurousness (increased) and intellect (increased), 
illustrated in Figure 14; whereas the males were more likely to be impacted for 
trust (increased), artistic interest (increased), dutifulness (increased), vulnerability 
(decreased), liberalism (increased) and cautiousness (decreased). 
 
These study results suggest that some personality traits are influenced differently 
depending on whether one is female or male. For this study?s female volunteers, 
there are high probabilities of changes (increases) in adventurousness (98.89%), 
assertiveness (98.83%) and activity (99.36%); change (decrease) in anxiety 
(99.91%). For the male volunteers, there are high probabilities of changes 
(increases) in trust (97.27%) and dutifulness (96.88%). Both groups were likely to 
0 
10 
20 
30 
40 
50 
60 
70 
80 
90 
100 
% 
Personality traits 
Age 16-29 
Age 30+ 
146 
 
change (decreases) in depression and vulnerability; summarised later in Table 30. 
These results are discussed in the following chapter.  
 
 
Table 23. The differences between the pre- and post-test by trait ? females 
Trait W+ W- N P  
Samples significantly 
different? 
Anxiety 912.5 263.5 48 0.001 Yes - P<=0.05 
Trust 318 628.0 43 0.062 No - P>=0.05 
Self-Efficacy 270 433.0 37 0.222 No - P>=0.05 
Artistic Interests 229.5 400.5 35 0.164 No - P>=0.05 
Depression 598.5 221.5 40 0.012 Yes - P<=0.05 
Assertiveness 235.5 625.5 41 0.012 Yes - P<=0.05 
Emotionality 243 460.0 37 0.103 No - P>=0.05 
Altruism 238.5 391.5 35 0.213 No - P>=0.05 
Dutifulness 268 293.0 33 0.830 No - P>=0.05 
Activity Level 233 670.0 42 0.006 Yes - P<=0.05 
Adventurousness 277 713.0 44 0.011 Yes - P<=0.05 
Intellect 368.5 577.5 43 0.209 No - P>=0.05 
Vulnerability 745.5 335.5 46 0.025 Yes - P<=0.05 
Liberalism 429 432.0 41 0.990 No - P>=0.05 
Cautiousness 452 368.0 40 0.577 No - P>=0.05 
 
 
Table 24. The differences between the pre- and post-test by trait ? males 
Trait W+ W- N P  
Samples significantly 
different? 
Anxiety 39 6.0 9 0.055 No - P>=0.05 
Trust 4.5 40.5 9 0.027 Yes - P<=0.05 
Self-Efficacy 13 32.0 9 0.301 No - P>=0.05 
Artistic Interests 4.5 31.5 8 0.055 No - P>=0.05 
Depression 33.5 2.5 8 0.023 Yes - P<=0.05 
Assertiveness 14 31.0 9 0.359 No - P>=0.05 
Emotionality 7 29.0 8 0.148 No - P>=0.05 
Altruism 4 17.0 6 0.219 No - P>=0.05 
Dutifulness 0 21.0 6 0.031 Yes - P<=0.05 
Activity Level 6 22.0 7 0.219 No - P>=0.05 
Adventurousness 12.5 23.5 8 0.461 No - P>=0.05 
Intellect 8 7.0 5 1.000 No - P>=0.05 
Vulnerability 45 0.0 9 0.004 Yes - P<=0.05 
Liberalism 5.5 15.5 6 0.313 No - P>=0.05 
Cautiousness 11 34.0 9 0.203 No - P>=0.05 
 
 
147 
 
 
Figure 14. The % of the time we would expect to obtain these results, by gender. 
 
 
6.4.3. The influence of project type 
The results of the Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks tests, carried out on the 
pre- and post-trip test scores, show that volunteers participating in the community 
or wildlife projects are influenced differently by the experience, as shown in Table 
25 and 26. The probability of community volunteers being impacted is higher for 
anxiety (increased), self-efficacy (increased), depression (decreased), altruism 
(increased), dutifulness (increased), intellect (increased) and vulnerability 
(decreased), illustrated in Figure 15. With regard to the wildlife volunteers, they 
were more likely to be impacted for trust (increased), artistic interest (increased), 
assertiveness (increased), emotionality (increased), activity (increased) and 
liberalism (increased).  
 
These results suggest that some personality traits are influenced differently, 
depending on whether one is a community volunteer or wildlife volunteer. For 
wildlife volunteers, there are high probabilities (96.97%, 98.90% and 96.58% 
respectively) of changes (increases) in trust, assertiveness and emotionality; for 
the community volunteers there is high probability (98.79%) of a change 
(decrease) in depression, summarised in Table 30. These results are discussed in 
the following chapter.  
 
0 
10 
20 
30 
40 
50 
60 
70 
80 
90 
100 
% 
Personality traits 
Females 
Males 
148 
 
 
Table 25. The differences between the pre- and post-test scores - community  
Trait W+ W- N P  
Samples significantly 
different? 
Anxiety 478.5 151.5 35 0.008 Yes - P<=0.05 
Trust 192.5 335.5 32 0.184 No - P>=0.05 
Self-Efficacy 160 275.0 29 0.218 No - P>=0.05 
Artistic Interests 134 244.0 27 0.190 No - P>=0.05 
Depression 334 101.0 29 0.012 Yes - P<=0.05 
Assertiveness 173.5 322.5 31 0.147 No - P>=0.05 
Emotionality 184.5 311.5 31 0.217 No - P>=0.05 
Altruism 103 197.0 24 0.184 No - P>=0.05 
Dutifulness 92.5 207.5 24 0.103 No - P>=0.05 
Activity Level 127 338.0 30 0.031 Yes - P<=0.05 
Adventurousness 166 362.0 32 0.068 No - P>=0.05 
Intellect 166.5 298.5 30 0.178 No - P>=0.05 
Vulnerability 419.5 141.5 33 0.013 Yes - P<=0.05 
Liberalism 208 198.0 28 0.918 No - P>=0.05 
Cautiousness 185.5 249.5 29 0.496 No - P>=0.05 
 
 
Table 26. The differences between the pre- and post-test scores ? wildlife  
Trait W+ W- N P  
Samples significantly 
different? 
Anxiety 188.5 42.5 21 0.012 Yes - P<=0.05 
Trust 36 135.0 18 0.030 Yes - P<=0.05 
Self-Efficacy 40.5 79.5 15 0.277 No - P>=0.05 
Artistic Interests 28 92.0 15 0.073 No - P>=0.05 
Depression 129 42.0 18 0.060 No - P>=0.05 
Assertiveness 24 129.0 17 0.011 Yes - P<=0.05 
Emotionality 12 66.0 12 0.034 Yes - P<=0.05 
Altruism 37.5 82.5 15 0.208 No - P>=0.05 
Dutifulness 43.5 61.5 14 0.583 No - P>=0.05 
Activity Level 20 133.0 17 0.006 Yes - P<=0.05 
Adventurousness 50 140.0 19 0.073 No - P>=0.05 
Intellect 82.5 70.5 17 0.782 No - P>=0.05 
Vulnerability 164.5 45.5 20 0.024 Yes - P<=0.05 
Liberalism 66 105.0 18 0.417 No - P>=0.05 
Cautiousness 102 69.0 18 0.495 No - P>=0.05 
 
 
149 
 
 
Figure 15. The % of the time we would expect to obtain these results, by project. 
 
 
6.4.4. The influence of length of stay 
The results of the Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks tests, carried out on the 
pre- and post-trip test scores, show that volunteers participating in volunteer 
tourism, for different lengths of time, are influenced differently by the experience, 
as shown in Tables 27, 28 and 29. The probability of volunteers staying 1 to 4 
weeks being impacted is higher for trust (increased), self-efficacy (increased) and 
liberalism (increased), illustrated in Figure 16.  
 
With regard to volunteers staying 5 to 12 weeks, they were more likely to be 
impacted for anxiety (decreased), artistic interest (increased), assertiveness 
(increased), emotionality (increased), altruism (increased), dutifulness (increased), 
activity (increased), adventurousness (increased), intellect (increased) and 
vulnerability (decreased).  
 
With regard to volunteers staying 13 to 52 weeks, they were more likely than the 
other groups to be impacted for depression (decreased) and cautiousness 
(decreased). 
 
These results suggest that some personality traits are influenced differently 
depending on how long people volunteer in South Africa. There are more potential 
benefits to those volunteers staying 5 to 12 weeks rather than shorter or longer 
0 
10 
20 
30 
40 
50 
60 
70 
80 
90 
100 
% 
Personality traits 
Community 
Wildlife 
150 
 
periods of time; although, there is a high probability (97.66%) of a change 
(increase) in trust amongst those volunteers staying 1 to 4 weeks. With regard to 
the other traits, there are high probabilities (95.75%, 97.27%, 99.07% and 97.34% 
respectively) of changes (increases) in assertiveness, altruism, activity levels and 
adventurousness amongst volunteers staying 5 to 12 weeks; high probability 
(99.98%) of a change (decrease) in vulnerability amongst those same volunteers. 
For anxiety, both the 5 to 12 weeks and 13 to 52 week stays were highly likely to 
change (decrease); summarised in Table 30. These results are discussed in the 
following chapter.  
 
The larger table, Table 30, summarises the areas analysed thus far, that is, the 
effect of volunteer tourism as well as the influence of age, gender, project type and 
length of stay on volunteer tourists engaging in volunteer work in South Africa; all 
of which are discussed in the following chapter. 
 
 
Table 27. The differences between the pre- and post-test scores, 1 to 4 weeks  
Trait W+ W- N P  
Samples significantly 
different? 
Anxiety 30.5 24.5 10 0.770 No - P>=0.05 
Trust 2.5 33.5 8 0.023 Yes - P<=0.05 
Self-Efficacy 11 25.0 8 0.383 No - P>=0.05 
Artistic Interests 15.5 29.5 9 0.426 No - P>=0.05 
Depression 18 18.0 8 1.000 No - P>=0.05 
Assertiveness 15 13.0 7 0.938 No - P>=0.05 
Emotionality 11.5 33.5 9 0.203 No - P>=0.05 
Altruism 13 23.0 8 0.547 No - P>=0.05 
Dutifulness 8 13.0 6 0.688 No - P>=0.05 
Activity Level 18 37.0 10 0.375 No - P>=0.05 
Adventurousness 17.5 18.5 8 0.945 No - P>=0.05 
Intellect 9 19.0 7 0.469 No - P>=0.05 
Vulnerability 22 23.0 9 1.000 No - P>=0.05 
Liberalism 5.5 15.5 6 0.313 No - P>=0.05 
Cautiousness 16.5 19.5 8 0.844 No - P>=0.05 
 
 
 
  
151 
 
Table 28. The differences between the pre- and post-test scores, 5 to 12 weeks  
Trait W+ W- N P  
Samples significantly 
different? 
Anxiety 100 5.0 14 0.001 Yes - P<=0.05 
Trust 26 40.0 11 0.577 No - P>=0.05 
Self-Efficacy 27 39.0 11 0.638 No - P>=0.05 
Artistic Interests 7 29.0 8 0.148 No - P>=0.05 
Depression 49.5 16.5 11 0.148 No - P>=0.05 
Assertiveness 13 65.0 12 0.042 Yes - P<=0.05 
Emotionality 5 23.0 7 0.156 No - P>=0.05 
Altruism 6.5 48.5 10 0.027 Yes - P<=0.05 
Dutifulness 11.5 33.5 9 0.203 No - P>=0.05 
Activity Level 7.5 70.5 12 0.009 Yes - P<=0.05 
Adventurousness 14.5 76.5 13 0.027 Yes - P<=0.05 
Intellect 24.5 80.5 14 0.078 No - P>=0.05 
Vulnerability 91 0.0 13 0.000 Yes - P<=0.05 
Liberalism 41 37.0 12 0.910 No - P>=0.05 
Cautiousness 30 75.0 14 0.173 No - P>=0.05 
 
 
Table 29. The differences between the pre- and post-test scores, 13 to 52 weeks 
Trait W+ W- N P  
Samples significantly 
different? 
Anxiety 27 1.0 7 0.031 Yes - P<=0.05 
Trust 6.5 14.5 6 0.438 No - P>=0.05 
Self-Efficacy 6.5 8.5 5 0.813 No - P>=0.05 
Artistic Interests 6 15.0 6 0.438 No - P>=0.05 
Depression 24 4.0 7 0.109 No - P>=0.05 
Assertiveness 6 22.0 7 0.219 No - P>=0.05 
Emotionality 8.5 6.5 5 0.813 No - P>=0.05 
Altruism 4.5 5.5 4 0.875 No - P>=0.05 
Dutifulness 4.5 10.5 5 0.438 No - P>=0.05 
Activity Level 6 15.0 6 0.438 No - P>=0.05 
Adventurousness 5 16.0 6 0.313 No - P>=0.05 
Intellect 8 16.0 6 0.688 No - P>=0.05 
Vulnerability 13.5 1.5 5 0.125 No - P>=0.05 
Liberalism 10 5.0 5 0.625 No - P>=0.05 
Cautiousness 10 0.0 4 0.125 No - P>=0.05 
 
 
152 
 
 
Figure 16. The % of the time we would expect to obtain these results, stay length. 
 
 
 
0 
10 
20 
30 
40 
50 
60 
70 
80 
90 
100 
% 
Personality traits 
1 to 4 weeks 
5 to 12 weeks 
13 to 52 weeks 
 
 
153 
 
Table 30. Summary - the % of time we would expect to obtain these results  
Trait 
All 
volunteers Control Age Age Gender Gender Project Project 
Stay 
(wks) 
Stay 
(wks) 
Stay 
(wks) 
      16-29 30+ Female Male Community Wildlife 1 to 4 5 to 12 13 to 52 
Sample size 60 35 44 16 50 10 37 21 10 14 7 
Anxiety 99.99 11.77 99.98 79.22 99.91 94.53 99.24 98.83 23.05 99.88 96.88 
Trust 99.03 34.33 99.18 36.45 93.79 97.27 81.57 96.96 97.66 42.29 56.25 
Self-Efficacy 90.49 80.13 76.87 75.61 77.83 69.92 78.22 72.31 61.72 36.23 18.75 
Artistic Interests 96.93 77.41 93.85 63.48 83.61 94.53 80.96 92.70 57.42 85.16 56.25 
Depression 99.84 17.07 99.84 53.03 98.85 97.66 98.79 94.01 0.00 85.25 89.06 
Assertiveness 99.25 97.45 99.05 50.78 98.83 64.06 85.30 98.90 6.25 95.75 78.12 
Emotionality 96.17 94.23 86.68 84.86 89.68 85.16 78.30 96.58 79.69 84.38 18.75 
Altruism 92.73 47.97 95.56 8.98 78.68 78.12 81.60 79.22 45.31 97.27 12.50 
Dutifulness 78.83 51.00 83.29 5.47 16.98 96.88 89.66 41.70 31.25 79.69 56.25 
Activity Level 99.80 39.29 99.90 33.02 99.36 78.12 96.92 99.44 62.50 99.07 56.25 
Adventurousness 99.31 55.10 99.54 40.05 98.89 53.91 93.17 92.72 5.47 97.34 68.75 
Intellect 72.53 69.14 74.51 7.81 79.08 0.00 82.21 21.81 53.12 92.15 31.25 
Vulnerability 99.79 23.61 98.70 92.61 97.45 99.61 98.67 97.61 0.00 99.98 87.50 
Liberalism 20.86 70.23 14.30 53.03 1.03 68.75 8.16 58.29 68.75 9.03 37.50 
Cautiousness 5.55 57.98 21.06 45.83 42.30 79.69 50.42 50.49 15.62 82.74 87.50 
Note: The areas highlighted are the areas where there is a significant probability of change. 
 
 
 
154 
 
6.4.5. The influence of time elapsed post-trip 
Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks tests were also carried out on those 
participants that were contactable one to two years after their trip, and who were 
prepared to complete a third personality inventory; the results are shown in Table 
31. The median post-trip and follow-up scores are illustrated in Figure 17. The 
response rates were very poor (27%) and, therefore, the results of these tests only 
provide an indication of what may happen over time.  
 
These study?s results suggest that the changes identified post-trip still hold one to 
two years later. In other words, there were no significant differences between the 
post-trip scores and the follow-up scores on all 15 traits measured. These results 
are discussed in the following chapter. 
 
 
Table 31. The differences between the post- and follow-up scores 
Trait W+ W- N P  
Samples significantly 
different? 
Anxiety 16 29.0 9 0.496 No - P>=0.05 
Trust 61 75.0 16 0.744 No - P>=0.05 
Self-Efficacy 36 69.0 14 0.326 No - P>=0.05 
Artistic Interests 74.5 30.5 14 0.173 No - P>=0.05 
Depression 16 29.0 9 0.496 No - P>=0.05 
Assertiveness 44.5 46.5 13 0.946 No - P>=0.05 
Emotionality 37 41.0 12 0.910 No - P>=0.05 
Altruism 28.5 62.5 13 0.244 No - P>=0.05 
Dutifulness 24 42.0 11 0.465 No - P>=0.05 
Activity Level 40.5 79.5 15 0.277 No - P>=0.05 
Adventurousness 86.5 33.5 15 0.135 No - P>=0.05 
Intellect 52 39.0 13 0.685 No - P>=0.05 
Vulnerability 52.5 25.5 12 0.301 No - P>=0.05 
Liberalism 52.5 52.5 14 1.000 No - P>=0.05 
Cautiousness 55.5 49.5 14 0.855 No - P>=0.05 
 
 
155 
 
 
Figure 17. The post- versus follow-up scores of volunteers one to two years later. 
 
 
6.5. Conclusion of this chapter 
This chapter described the context of the volunteer tourism experience for those 
Aviva volunteers participating in different projects in South Africa. Additionally it 
described the participants and analysed the changes in those participants as a 
result of their volunteering experience. The personality inventory results 
demonstrated significant differences in volunteers? pre- versus post-trip test scores 
for seven of the fifteen traits measured. These differences include: significant 
changes (increases) in trust, artistic interests, emotionality, activity and 
adventurousness; significant changes (decreases) in anxiety and depression. The 
results were different from the control group who were measured over a similar 
period of time. 
 
Thereafter, the influence of age, gender, project type, length of stay and time 
elapsed post-trip were examined. For age, this volunteering experience is highly 
likely (greater than 95% probability) to change the 16-29 years in the seven traits 
identified earlier, but not the 30+ years. The results also suggest that some 
personality traits are influenced differently depending on whether one is female or 
male, a community volunteer or wildlife volunteer, and how long people volunteer 
in South Africa. It appears, from the results of this study, that those benefitting 
0 
2 
4 
6 
8 
10 
12 
14 
16 
18 
20 
M
 e
 d
 ia
 n
  sc
 o
 re
 s 
Personality traits 
Post-trip score 
Follow-up score 
156 
 
most from volunteer tourism tend to be female, aged between 16 and 29, engaged 
in wildlife projects of between 5 and 12 weeks in duration. 
 
Lastly, the results show that for time elapsed post-trip, the changes identified post-
 trip were still evident one to two years later, as there were no significant 
differences between the post-trip scores and the follow-up scores on all 15 traits 
measured. 
 
The following chapter discusses the results of this chapter as well as the likelihood 
of change in the participating volunteer tourists, highlights the study?s similarities to 
other studies, and offers explanations for findings which differ from these studies.  
 
 
157 
 
7. CHAPTER SEVEN ? discussion of the personality inventory 
results 
 
 
Chapter seven discusses the likelihood of change in the participating volunteer 
tourists, highlights the study?s similarities to other studies, and offers explanations 
for findings which differ from these studies. Some relevant theoretical concepts will 
be discussed to explain the personality results of the sample, these include: flow 
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990); self-confidence (Maslow, 1993; Carver and Scheier, 
2005); performance experience (Bandura, 1997); social integration (Chambre, 
1987; Stevens-Ratchford, 2005; Wilson and Musick, 2000); motivated by egoism 
(Batson et al., 2005); cognitive stability (Eysenck, 1970); and others. Some 
implications of these changes will also be highlighted and the limitations of this 
part of the study.  
 
7.1. Discussion 
The primary aim of this study was to investigate whether international volunteer 
tourism changes participants undertaking community and wildlife projects, using 
the Aviva organisation in South Africa. This involved addressing a number of 
objectives which are summarised here:  
1. To broaden our understanding of the impacts of volunteer tourism. 
2. To understand the likelihood of change. 
3. To eliminate some alternate explanations for the results, by using a 
matched control group. 
4. To understand more about the influence of age, gender, project type and 
length of stay on the impacts of volunteer tourism. 
5. To identify whether the post-trip changes still hold one to two years later.  
 
In order to broaden our understanding of the impacts of volunteer tourism, sixty 
volunteer tourists completed the IPIP-NEO personality inventory pre- and post-trip. 
The participants were mainly female (83%), below the age of 30 (73%), the largest 
occupational group being students (32%), the majority originating from the United 
Kingdom (41%). As already mentioned in chapter six, the demographic profile, 
particularly the age, gender and occupational group of these volunteers, is similar 
158 
 
to the profile of other volunteer tourists. In this respect, other researchers can 
appraise the results and the extent to which they could be transferred to other 
settings. Also, their reasons for volunteering are consistent with those identified by 
Brown (2005), Coghlan (2006a; 2006b), Gecko et al. (2009), Lepp (2009), 
McGehee et al. (2009), Benson and Seibert (2009), Sin (2009) and Wearing 
(2001), as shown earlier in Table 6. 
 
Addressing the first three objectives stated above, the results summarised in Table 
30, column 1, show the likelihood of change, in percentage terms, amongst this 
study?s volunteers for the 15 traits measured (defined in Table 7); whilst Figure 11 
displays the direction of the change. The highlighted areas in Table 30 identify 
those traits where change is highly likely and the probability is greater than or 
equal to 95%. This probability rating is used by statisticians to determine the level 
of significance of the results (Albery et al., 2004; Clegg, 1990). However, the 
reader may decide to use a lower percentage for judging the effectiveness of a 
volunteer programme. For example, the 90.49% chance of increased self-efficacy 
found in this study may be sufficient to convince the reader of its importance. In 
this study, post-trip volunteers showed significant changes (greater than 95% 
likely) in nine personality traits out of 15: anxiety (decreased), trust (increased), 
artistic interests (increased), depression (decreased), assertiveness (increased), 
emotionality (increased), activity levels (increased), adventurousness (increased) 
and vulnerability (decreased). However, the use of a control group of 35 people, 
measured over a similar period of time, meant that assertiveness was eliminated 
from the results because of the possible influence of day-to-day events on this 
trait, demonstrated by the changes in the control group. Vulnerability was also 
eliminated from the results because of the differences between the volunteers and 
control group at the start; thus leaving seven traits highly likely to be impacted by 
the volunteer tourism experience alone: anxiety, trust, artistic interests, 
depression, emotionality, activity levels and adventurousness. 
  
This study identifies beneficial changes in some traits that were not specifically 
identified in the volunteer tourism literature: changes in ?anxiety?, ?depression? and 
?activity?. Volunteers generally return from their trip more calm and less anxious; 
less likely to feel sad, dejected and discouraged, more likely to initiate activities; 
and more likely to lead busier lives moving about more quickly, energetically and 
159 
 
vigorously, and more likely to be involved in extra activities. The decreases in 
anxiety and depression, and increase in activity, contribute to improved well-being 
as noted in positive psychology research (Baumeister and Vohs, 2005; 
Williamson, 2005). These beneficial impacts, particularly decreases in depression 
and increases in activity, have also been recognised as outcomes of domestic 
volunteering (Arnstein et al., 2002; Howlett, 2004; Morrow-Howell et al., 2003; 
Stevens-Ratchford, 2005; Thoits and Hewitt, 2001; Wilson and Musick, 2000; Van 
Willigen, 2000). However, as was noted in the literature review, these beneficial 
impacts were concentrated on the 60 plus age group. In contrast, this study?s 
volunteer tourists, aged 16-29, received many more beneficial impacts than the 
30+ age group. In support of this finding, not all domestic volunteering studies 
concur on the beneficial impacts of volunteering for ?older? people (Krause, 
Hertzog and Baker, 1992). Also, it was noted in chapter one that some 
fundamental differences exist between domestic volunteers and international 
volunteer tourists such as their motives. International volunteer tourists want to 
?travel?, have ?fun? and ?adventure?, be ?independent? and ?immerse themselves in 
another culture?. These different activities/experiences may account for the 
different findings (Wilson and Musick, 2000). Also, there were other differences: 
the volunteers in this study noted many occasions where they took ?responsibility? 
and how their lives changed as a result (Maddux, 2005); the volunteer tourists 
were also confronted head on with human problems, such as, poverty, educational 
inequalities, and substandard living conditions; so change might be expected 
(Bailey and Russell, 2010). Furthermore, in support of the results of this study, trait 
stability estimates are much lower (in the region of 50%) prior to age 30 (Costa 
and McCrae, 1994; McCrae and Costa, 2003); this would explain why there were 
more beneficial impacts for this age group. 
 
Other changes concur with previous volunteer tourism studies (for e.g. Bailey and 
Russell, 2010; Laythorpe, 2009): changes (increases) in emotionality, trust, artistic 
interest and adventurousness. Volunteers return from their trip with better access 
to their own feelings; they assume people are fair, honest, and have good 
intentions; they have more interest in art and nature; and are eager to try new 
activities, to travel and experience different things. Bailey and Russell (2010) 
measured changes in these traits under the umbrella ?openness to experience?. 
Individuals who exhibit openness also tend to be more trusting, tolerant of 
160 
 
diversity, exhibit artistic interest, adventuresome, and less dogmatic (Bailey and 
Russell, 2010; Costa and McCrae, 1985). However, Bailey and Russell (2010) did 
not use a control group in their study, so, other variables, rather than the volunteer 
tourism experience, may have accounted for the changes amongst their 
volunteers. Whereas, the use of a control group, in this study, enhanced the 
validity of the findings because none of the control group members showed any 
significant changes in these traits. Also, in support of increased interest in arts and 
nature, many of Laythorpe?s (2009) community volunteers ?regretted the absence 
of opportunities to go to art galleries, museums and concerts; and one person was 
struck by the lack of history in the area? (p. 10), indicating that this is what they 
sought. 
  
Some of this study?s findings also differ from the findings of previous studies. 
Unlike Wearing?s (2001), Lough et al. (2009b), and Bailey and Russell?s (2010) 
work, this study showed no significant increases in altruism (the concern for other 
people generally and their feelings, and taking time for others). Wearing (2001) 
stated that volunteer tourism ?results in a variety of learning and behavioural 
changes, such as being less self-centred? (p.134). Similarly, Lough et al. (2009b) 
found that 90% of their volunteers reported that their experience particularly 
strengthened their commitment to volunteer service, although they later said ?it 
may not significantly affect them? (p. 10). Also, Bailey and Russell (2010) found 
positive growth in ?civic attitude?: ?the belief that an individual can make a 
difference in the world and has the responsibility in giving back to the community? 
(p. 355). In contrast, and despite ?altruism? being a motive for many participating 
volunteers, this study group showed no significant increases in this trait 
(probability of 92.73%). Also, data from this study?s 36 interviews, in the following 
chapter, showed just two volunteers increasing their participation in volunteering or 
becoming more active citizens in their community after they returned home. One of 
these volunteers (no. 15) said: ?I am grateful for what I have and now have a 
sense of duty to help whilst I can? whilst the other said: ?I volunteer regularly at a 
local school listening to and helping 8 year olds read? (volunteer 33). This study 
further found that the probability of change increases to 95.56% for volunteers in 
the younger age group of between 16 and 29, shown in Table 30. In the above 
mentioned tourism studies, the volunteers were all below the age of 29, which 
might have accounted for these different findings, as personality trait flexibility is 
161 
 
significantly higher prior to age 30 (Maiden et al., 2003; Costa and McCrae, 1994; 
McCrae and Costa, 2003). 
 
This study also shows that although self-efficacy (confidence in one's ability to 
accomplish things, and the belief in one?s intelligence, drive and self-control 
necessary for achieving success) levels increased afterwards, it was not 
statistically significant (probability of 90.49%). This finding differs from McGehee 
and Santos (2005) who found evidence of social action and participation in social 
movements, which encourage social change, amongst their volunteers, such as 
avoiding restaurants that could exploit local citizens or boycotting corporations 
based on their record of fair labour practices. Also, Zahra (2011) provided 
examples of advocacy18 and commitment to social development amongst her 
volunteers. Self-efficacy was also noted by Zahra and McIntosh (2007) as an 
outcome of the cathartic nature of volunteer tourism experiences (p. 115). Whilst 
all their notions of self-efficacy may be slightly different to the one used in this 
study, they are close enough to gauge the extent to which people have confidence 
in their own power to achieve their goals. This study shows that although self-
 efficacy levels increased afterwards, it was not statistically significant. The short-
 stays of volunteers of around two to four weeks in Zahra?s (2011) and Zahra and 
McIntosh?s (2007) research might account for this contrasting finding, as the 
shorter lengths of stay in this study, of between one and four weeks, are more 
likely to facilitate change in this trait. In support of this explanation, Wearing (2001) 
indicated that the volunteer experience is initially new and unfamiliar, therefore 
volunteers attempt to control their environment when they first arrive at the 
destination; successful attempts at control increases self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997; 
Wilson and Musick, 2000). However, this explanation does not account for 
increased self-efficacy amongst McGehee and Santos?s (2005) community 
volunteers as only six of 16 volunteers stayed less than a month.  
 
These studies, on self-efficacy in volunteer tourism, prompted McGehee (2011) to 
question whether self-efficacy can be used as a measure of the likelihood to 
participate in a volunteer tourism experience. This notion suggests that there might 
be a volunteer tourist ?personality type? (Wilson and Musick, 2000). In this study, 
the volunteer group and control group showed no significant differences in this trait 
                                                 
18 Advocacy includes social movement activity (Young and Everitt, 2004). 
162 
 
at the start, suggesting that self-efficacy is not a suitable measure; nor does it 
appear that there is a personality type ? a bundle of traits ? that predispose 
individuals to volunteer because there were no significant differences between the 
control group and volunteer group at the start, for 93% of the traits measured. In 
addition, McGehee pondered over how might volunteer tourism impact self-
 efficacy, and in turn, social movement participation? In this study, the participants 
of volunteer tourism did not show any significant differences between their pre-, 
post-trip test and follow-up scores, suggesting that self-efficacy is not a statistically 
significant end product of volunteer tourism; nor were there any examples of self-
 efficacy, such as social action and participation in social movements, identified 
from interviews with the volunteers.  
 
Moreover, the increases reported in the liberalism trait (readiness to challenge 
authority, convention and traditional values as well as being more tolerant of 
diversity), in this study, were not statistically significant (probability of 20.86%), as 
shown in Table 30. Increases in this trait would have been positive and beneficial 
(Boniwell, 2006; Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, 2000a). These findings differ 
from the findings of some qualitative studies which have reported changes in 
liberal behaviours and attitudes, for example, Wearing?s (2001) ?gaining new 
perspectives? and ?being more thoughtful and open? in his conservation and 
community projects, and Broad?s (2003) and Harlow and Pomfret?s (2007) 
?changes in the way the volunteers viewed their lives and the world? and the ?ability 
to get on with other people? in their wildlife projects. The reason for this difference 
is little understood; however, as will be seen below, some traits are more likely 
than others to be impacted by wildlife versus community project experiences. The 
liberalism trait appears more likely to be impacted by wildlife rather than 
community project experiences; the probabilities are 58.29% and 8.16% 
respectively. This reason may account for the changes in Broad (2003) and 
Harlow and Pomfret?s (2007) wildlife volunteers but is more difficult to determine 
for Wearing?s (2001) volunteers who participated in both community and 
conservation tasks. It may be that the outcomes are different because of the 
different methods of analysis. This study analyses the statistical probabilities of 
changes amongst a group of 60 volunteers; whereas these other studies explore 
the subjective experiences of individual volunteers. 
 
163 
 
Lastly, with regard to the dutifulness trait (the strength of a person's sense of duty 
and obligation), Zahra and McIntosh (2007) reported an outcome of an increased 
?sense of justice, rights and duties, and the responsibilities one has towards 
society? (p. 118); whereas, in this study, this trait was one of the least likely to be 
impacted by the volunteer tourism experience. Although their respondent 
commented on her responsibility to contribute to her community and country post-
 trip, she did not elaborate on the action taken; this may be a result of attitude and 
good intentions not converting into real actions at home (Alvarez and Roney, 
2010; Sin, 2010). Also, domestic volunteering studies, of community volunteers, 
have found no significant increases in dutifulness, a volunteer?s own sense of 
personal duty to help meet the needs of others (Hamilton and Fenzel, 1988). 
 
With regard to these different findings, it must be noted that there is some chance 
of changes in altruism, self-efficacy, liberalism and dutifulness, following a 
volunteer tourism experience, but they are not statistically significant. Lastly, 
pertaining to the remaining traits, not specifically studied in the volunteer tourism 
literature, that is: ?intellect? and ?cautiousness?, these traits are the least likely to be 
impacted by the volunteer tourism experience. A participant observer, in McIntosh 
and Zahra?s (2007) community study, noted that certain intellectual issues came 
up in the conversation at the dinner table; why some people suffer and others 
don?t; why some are lucky and others not. But, there was no evidence of these 
intellectual debates being carried over into people?s daily lives at home. For 
intellect, there is some evidence of adolescents, aged between 11 and 17, growing 
intellectually in domestic volunteering studies (Hamilton and Fenzel, 1988), but 
without the use of a control group, it is unknown whether this is due to the 
volunteering experience or normal maturation (Musick and Wilson, 2008). 
 
7.2. Some explanations of the statistical results 
The significant changes in this study?s volunteer tourists? traits, which have 
occurred as a result of their volunteer tourism experience, will now be explained 
using volunteer tourism and psychology literature and this study?s empirical 
findings. The aim is to highlight their implications for the field of volunteer tourism 
and for positive psychology. At the same time, where possible, explanations will 
also be offered for those traits that are least likely to be impacted by the volunteer 
tourism experience. 
164 
 
 
7.2.1. Anxiety: the concept of flow 
The decreased level of anxiety resulting from the volunteer tourism experience, as 
this study shows, suggests that the volunteer?s anxiety threshold level has 
increased. This experience offers an opportunity to develop one?s skills, through 
action programmes (challenges) which create ?flow? rather than ?anxiety? 
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Nakamura and Csikszentmihalyi, 2005). Flow is 
experienced when perceived challenges and skills are above the participant?s 
average levels (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997). However, as challenges increasingly 
exceed capacities/skills, anxiety is experienced (Nakamura and Csikszentmihalyi, 
2005). According to Nakamura and Csikszentmihalyi, in flow, one is engaged in 
just-manageable challenges/actions; one is completely absorbed in what one is 
doing. So, an explanation for decreased anxiety amongst this study?s volunteer 
tourists is that the experience provides an opportunity to develop one?s skills so 
that action opportunities (challenges) create ?flow? rather than ?anxiety?. This is 
demonstrated by volunteer 10: ?I did find the shifts really tough going. It was a 
physical job. We would fill the babies bottles in the morning and chop the veg for 
the day but the hard work was compensated by being with the children and getting 
to know them. We were always on the go throughout our shift?. In support of this 
explanation, Broad (2003) and Harlow and Pomfret (2007) found many of their 
volunteers developed skills to deal with challenging situations; and one of Sin?s 
(2009) volunteers expressed the need to be challenged as an important part of her 
experience, where feeling scared, exhausted and thoroughly tested is sometimes 
part of the deal (p. 493). These kinds of challenges have also been found to 
enhance well-being (Morrow-Howell et al., 2009); a potential implication for the 
field of positive psychology. The decreased anxiety post-trip, found from this study, 
also suggests that these skills might have been transferred to the volunteers? 
everyday lives at home; another potential implication for the field of positive 
psychology. One volunteer (no. 13) articulates this impact well: ?I learned a lot 
especially respect of other cultures and understanding other?s feelings and their 
individuality?. 
 
7.2.2. Trust: increased self-confidence and giving up of control 
The trust trait showed a significant increase amongst this study?s volunteers. 
According to Maslow (1993), trust in oneself and in the world involves self-
165 
 
confidence, courage, and lack of fear of the world. Increased confidence post-trip 
and its impact on their day-to-day lives were evident in many participating 
volunteers. They attributed their increased confidence to ?action?, ?interaction?, 
?involvement? and taking ?responsibility?: ?I am not quite as nervous now in new 
situations? (volunteer 21); ?I feel a sense of achievement and will do more 
travelling as a woman solo traveller? (volunteer 3); and ?I was constantly with 
people I didn?t know and therefore had to trust them and go with the flow, I got 
used to trusting people and hoping for the best? (volunteer 31). Maslow (1993:65) 
further adds: ?trust involves the temporary giving up of straining and striving, of 
volition and control, of conscious coping and effort?. This consciously ?giving up of 
control? and trusting others, is experienced by some of this study?s volunteers: ?I 
was thrown into a situation where I lived and worked with people I?ve never met 
before? (volunteer 17). Not only is trust a beneficial impact of volunteer tourism, 
but also optimism. People who are more trusting of others tend to be more 
optimistic, expecting good things to happen to them (Carver and Scheier, 2005); 
an important implication for positive psychology. In this respect, a volunteer 
tourism experience may help people to become more optimistic. Recent research 
on ?optimism? (see Carver and Scheier, 2005) suggests that pessimism can be 
changed despite it being deeply embedded in a person?s life either through 
inheritance or early childhood experience. However, there remain questions about 
how large a change can be reasonably expected and how permanent the change 
will be. There also remain questions about whether an induced optimistic view on 
life will act in the same way ? have the same beneficial effects ? as does naturally 
occurring optimistic view. So, volunteer tourism may provide the context for 
studying this phenomenon further and perhaps address these questions. 
 
7.2.3. Self Efficacy: performance experience  
The self-efficacy trait did not show a significant change amongst this study?s 
volunteers. ?Performance experience? may explain this result. Bandura (1997) 
postulated that our own attempts to control our environment are the most powerful 
sources of self-efficacy. Successful attempts at control will strengthen self-efficacy; 
whereas perceived failure at control usually diminishes self-efficacy (ibid.; Wilson 
and Musick, 2000). For the trust trait, a conscious ?giving up of control? explained 
increases in this trait; demonstrated by volunteer 31 who commented on how she 
was constantly with people she didn?t know and therefore had to trust them and go 
166 
 
with the flow. She got used to trusting people and hoping for the best; however, for 
self-efficacy, this explanation offers a reason as to why there were no significant 
changes amongst this study?s volunteers. Volunteer 26 noted how she had to rely 
on the host to transport her to places and therefore had to be back at a certain 
time; demonstrating the lack of control over her environment. These different 
effects of ?giving up control? on these traits is important for those manufacturing 
experiences to produce certain programme outcomes (see, for example, 
Ballantyne, Packer and Sutherland, 2011). 
 
7.2.4. Artistic Interests: engagement 
The artistic interest trait showed a significant increase amongst this study?s 
volunteers. They were more likely to become involved and absorbed in artistic and 
natural events following a volunteer tourism experience. For example, volunteer 16 
commented on how she appreciates art more ?after her eyes were opened in 
South Africa?. There appears to be very little written about this trait, specifically, 
although it is a facet of ?openness to experience?; open people tend to be 
appreciative of art, and sensitive to beauty (refer to IPIP-NEO web-site at 
http://www.personalitytest.net/ipip/ipipneo120.htm; Costa and McCrae, 1985, 
1992; McCrae and Costa, 2003). Openness is often presented as healthier or 
mature by psychologists; however, open and closed styles of thinking are useful in 
different environments, for example, closed thinking is related to superior job 
performance in police work. Openness has also been identified in positive 
psychology studies as an antecedent to well-being (Bailey and Russell, 2010). 
Although the literature does not appear to offer a theoretical explanation for why 
this trait changed (Bailey and Russell, 2010), interviews with the volunteers in this 
study suggest the change was due to ?engagement? in volunteer tourism through 
?action?, ?immersion?, ?interaction? and ?participation?. Volunteer 2 describes her 
?action?: ?I visited art museums to learn about the history of South Africa?; and 
volunteer 28 described her ?immersion? and ?interaction?: ?we didn?t feel like tourists 
and that was a great feeling?, ?we got to know people from all over the world and 
we had so much fun?. These individual components of engagement found in this 
study, that is, ?action?, ?immersion?, ?interaction? and ?participation? display their 
transformative potential in many other volunteer tourism studies (see Bailey and 
Russell, 2010; Harlow and Pomfret, 2007; Laythorpe, 2009; Lepp, 2008; McGehee 
167 
 
and Santos, 2005; McIntosh and Zahra, 2007; Sin, 2009; Wearing, 2001; Wickens, 
2011). 
 
7.2.5. Depression: social integration  
The depression trait showed a significant decrease amongst this study?s 
volunteers. It must be noted that depression in this study is more to do with mood, 
as measured by the IPIP-NEO personality inventory, rather than malfunction. This 
personality inventory measures the tendency to feel sad, dejected and 
discouraged. High scorers lack energy and have difficulty initiating activities. A 
recurring explanation for why depression decreased amongst this study?s 
volunteers, and others, is to do with social integration; the extent to which an 
individual is connected to other people (Chambre, 1987; Csikszentmihalyi, 1997; 
Lee and Brudney, 2008; Stevens-Ratchford, 2005; Wearing, 2001; Wilson and 
Musick, 2000). These studies concur that activities such as volunteering provide a 
broad and diverse network of interactions; whereas people report much lower 
moods when alone, they feel less happy, less cheerful, less strong, more bored, 
and more passive (Albery et al., 2004; Csikszentmihalyi, 1997; Ryff and Singer, 
2005). Interactions, such as those found in volunteering, are challenging as they 
require interpersonal skills; also people concentrate their attention on external 
demands, rather than worries (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997). Having good relationships 
with others is universally endorsed as being central to optimal living (Ryff and 
Singer, 2005). In this respect, volunteer tourism may offer an approach to promote 
well-being. Also, having a good life requires a certain level of activity (Albery et al., 
2004; Boniwell, 2006); many of the volunteers in this study reported increases in 
their activity trait (see page 169). So, this may also explain why depression 
decreased amongst this study?s volunteers. An increase in activity correlates with 
a decrease in depression as a result of the social interaction and physical exertion 
of activity (Albery et al., 2004). 
 
7.2.6. Assertiveness: conflict resolution and taking responsibility 
Although the assertiveness trait changed (increased) amongst this study?s 
volunteers, the control group also changed suggesting that day-to-day life also 
influences the ability of people to stand up for themselves, speak out and take 
charge. Reviewing the experiences of both groups, a common theme was 
identified amongst those with increased assertiveness, that is, ?conflict resolution? 
168 
 
and, therefore, ?taking responsibility? for changing what they did not like. Volunteer 
32 explains: ?there were a lot of volunteers who were on their own for the first time 
(and some older ones too) who weren?t doing their share around the house.....I 
was the one who would step up and talk to them about it?. Similarly, control 
member 6 explains: ?I dealt with the pensioners? medical aid recently and have 
had to steer the action against our old employer on behalf of ex-employees?. This 
concept of ?taking responsibility? and ?changing what you do not like? is a recurring 
theme in assertiveness training and many self-help books (see Cottrell, 2003). So, 
although volunteer tourism creates opportunities to increase one?s assertiveness, 
it can also be achieved in other contexts. 
 
7.2.7. Emotionality: interactional temperament model 
High emotionality means that one has good access to and an awareness of one?s 
feelings. This trait showed a significant increase amongst this study?s volunteers. 
When we understand more about ourselves, know our own triggers, and develop 
our emotional intelligence, we are more able to manage situations (Cottrell, 2003). 
The ?interactional temperament model? offers some insight into why this trait could 
have changed. Ryckman (2008) explains: the environment and temperament traits 
(emotionality being one of these), mutually influence each other. This is 
demonstrated by volunteer 13: ?living in a different country, with different people 
and different language........I learned a lot especially respect of other cultures and 
understanding others? feelings and their individuality?; demonstrating how the 
environment influenced this volunteer. In respect of these ?others? described by 
volunteer 13, it would have been fruitful to interview them in order to understand 
their emotional reactions to the volunteers and how they, in turn, were influenced 
by these volunteers, and the affect this then had on the volunteers (the 
interaction); thus helping us to better understand why emotionality changed 
amongst this study?s volunteers (see McIntosh and Zahra, 2007). The interactional 
temperament model is akin to Wearing?s (2001) concept of interactionism, in so far 
as the ?self? (the temperament traits in the case of the interactional temperament 
model) is impacted by the space and people that form the destination site.  
 
7.2.8. Altruism and Dutifulness: motivated by egoism 
The altruism trait and dutifulness trait did not show significant changes amongst 
this study?s volunteers. The volunteers may have been motivated by egoism rather 
169 
 
than altruism (see Sin, 2009); the focus of attention and contention for the past two 
decades (Batson et al., 2005). If the ultimate goal was to increase their own 
welfare, then the motivation is said to be egoistic (ibid., 2005). Proponents of 
universal egoism claim that everything we do, no matter how noble and beneficial 
to others, is really directed towards the ultimate goal of self-benefit. Although this 
knowledge may play havoc with our assumption about human nature, it could 
explain why altruism did not change significantly amongst this study?s volunteers. 
In support of this explanation, many of this study?s volunteers described their 
motives for participating in volunteer tourism: ?to do something different?; ?to learn?; 
?to get experience?; ?to achieve something?; ?to have an adventure?; ?to see South 
Africa?; ?to get away?; ?to be independent?; and ?to do something they have never 
done before? (see chapter six). If these volunteers had been purely motivated by 
altruism ? the ultimate goal of increasing another?s welfare ? then one has to 
question why international voluntourism? Why not volunteer domestically instead? 
It may be that volunteers would rather travel further afield to help those that they 
perceive to have more need; however, why voluntourism? Why not international 
volunteering? The answers may lie in the tourism dimension of volunteer tourism; 
satisfying the self through the fun, travel and adventure offered by volunteer 
tourism (see Sin, 2009). 
 
7.2.9. Activity level: fitness and other self-benefits 
The activity level trait showed a significant increase amongst this study?s 
volunteers. Volunteers were more likely to return from their trip energetic and more 
likely to lead busier lives. Many volunteers improved their fitness as a result of the 
physical nature of their volunteering and tourism activities. Volunteer 10 ?found the 
shifts really tough going. It was a physical job.......we were always on the go 
throughout the shift?; volunteer 30 spoke of the contribution the work made to her 
losing three stone in weight; and volunteer 15 spoke of how much there was to do 
and see and how she ?didn?t want to miss out?. Schulman (2005) points out that in 
order to act one must inquire about his or her motive. Volunteer 34 explains how 
her action of: ?....trying to keep physically active at home? was motivated by her 
desire to improve her physical health. As having a good life requires a certain level 
of activity (Boniwell, 2006), this trait may be of significance to positive psychology. 
 
170 
 
7.2.10. Adventurousness and Vulnerability: opportunities and 
confidence 
The adventurousness trait showed a significant increase amongst this study?s 
volunteers. Adventurousness is about trying new activities, travel and experiencing 
new things (Costa and McCrae, 1992). Volunteer ?involvement? and ?participation? 
in activities such as shark-diving, sky-diving, mountain climbing, hiking, caving, 
handling snakes, eating traditional foods and white-water rafting, seemed to have 
inspired some of the participating volunteers ?not to hold back if there is something 
you want to do? (volunteer 32); ?to try new experiences? (volunteer 21); and ?to do 
more travelling? (volunteer 3). Some of this increased adventurousness seemed to 
be attributed to increased confidence as a result of trying new experiences (see 
Bailey and Russell, 2010; Broad, 2003; Schott, 2011; Harlow and Pomfret, 2007; 
Lepp, 2008; Wearing, 2001; Wickens, 2011): ?I am not quite a nervous now to try 
new experiences? (volunteer 21) and ?I feel a sense of achievement and will do 
more travelling as a woman solo traveller? (volunteer 3). The opportunity to try new 
activities abroad may explain why female volunteers showed significant increases 
in this trait post-trip whilst the men did not. Males may be more likely to try these 
activities at home. In support of this argument, males did show a higher median 
pre-trip score in adventurousness. Furthermore, Bailey and Russell (2010) found 
evidence of more personal growth amongst those participants who scored lower in 
these domains at the start; as was the case for this study?s female volunteers. 
 
Unlike any of the other traits measured in this study, vulnerability trait scores were 
significantly different to the control group at the start. The volunteers scored higher 
on this trait than did the control group (10.5 versus 8); suggesting that other 
variables could have accounted for the changes in this trait, for example, 
personality type or state of mind, rather than the volunteer tourism experience 
(Musick and Wilson, 2008). Nevertheless, volunteers did return from their trip more 
poised, confident and clear thinking. Volunteer 4 commented on how she could 
deal with other situations now which take her outside her comfort zone. These 
volunteers reported how their ?action? and ?interaction? in new situations - such as 
?being in a different area and situation and meeting various people every day? 
(volunteer 21) ? initially caused them anxiety, but they gained confidence as a 
result of coping with these new experiences (Wearing, 2001).  
171 
 
 
7.2.11. Intellect: cognitive stability 
The intellect trait, along with artistic interest, is one of the most important central 
aspects to openness to experience (refer to IPIP-NEO web-site at 
http://www.personalitytest.net/ipip/ipipneo120.htm). In this study, although artistic 
interests changed amongst volunteers, intellectual style did not. High scorers in 
intellectual style are said to be open-minded to new and unusual ideas and like to 
debate intellectual issues whereas low scorers prefer to deal with people or things 
rather than ideas (see chapter four). The lack of change in this trait, even amongst 
the younger volunteers, tends to support the view of the stability of cognitive 
behaviour. Eysenck (1970), in his theory of personality, posits that intellect is a 
more or less stable aspect of personality along with a person?s character, 
temperament and physique. Based on the results of this study, volunteer tourism 
does not appear to offer an appropriate context for studying mature cognitive 
development. Furthermore, recent research suggests genetics influences 
cognition up to 81% (Whitfield and Brandon, 2005); adding further evidence to 
support the results of this study.  
 
A discussion of the traits measured in this study provides a better understanding of 
why volunteer tourism may impact some of these traits and not others. This 
information could be useful to those manufacturing experiences to produce certain 
outcomes as well as to volunteers searching for desired self-outcomes (Alexander, 
2012); this study provides statistical evidence of the likely impacts of volunteer 
tourism, supported by extracts from the interviews with the volunteers. It also 
demonstrates what can be realistically achieved through volunteer tourism, for the 
volunteer. 
 
In respect of the changes identified in this study, there are a number of 
applications. For example, for volunteers who are motivated to participate in 
volunteer tourism by the opportunity to learn independence, increase confidence, 
improve well-being, or develop self etc, it would be useful to be aware of the 
likelihood of satisfying those motives. For instance, using Table 30 and Figure 11, 
amongst this study?s volunteers, there is a 90% chance of increasing one?s self-
 efficacy, a 99.99% chance of decreasing anxiety, and 99.84% chance of 
decreasing depressive feelings. Knowing these statistical probabilities may help 
172 
 
boost involvement in volunteering. Furthermore, marketers could use these figures 
to attract volunteers, and government initiatives could use these figures as 
statistical evidence to support the benefits of some international voluntary service. 
For example, this study?s volunteers are 99.80% likely to become more active 
individuals leading fast-paced, busy lives, and become involved in more activities, 
following their volunteer tourism experience. It must be noted that, for this study, 
?active? does not translate into active citizenship where participants return home 
and work towards the betterment of their community; rather this study?s volunteers 
became active in the physical sense: ?I am trying to keep physically active? 
(volunteer 34); and ?I am more motivated to go out and do things instead of getting 
back into the same everyday routine? (volunteer 15).  
 
7.3. The influence of age, gender, project type and 
length of stay 
Addressing the fourth objective, of the influence of age, gender, project type and 
length of stay on the impacts of volunteer tourism, Table 30 highlights the traits 
that are significantly influenced by these variables.  
 
7.3.1. The influence of age 
For age, the volunteering experience is highly likely (greater than 95% probability) 
to change the 16-29 years in eight traits: anxiety, trust, depression, assertiveness, 
altruism, activity, adventurousness and vulnerability, but not the 30+ years. So this 
study shows that age influences the probability of change amongst these volunteer 
tourists. One reason for this age difference is the view that trait stability estimates 
are significantly lower prior to age 30 (Costa and McCrae, 1994; Maiden et al., 
2003; McCrae and Costa, 2003). In support of this theory, Birdwell (2011) noted 
that younger volunteers were more likely than older volunteers to report changes 
in personal development and social development. However, Bailey and Russell 
(2010) found that age did not influence the impact of volunteer tourism on the 
?openness? trait. Similarly, this study found that most of this category?s facets, that 
is, artistic interest, emotionality, intellect and liberalism, were not influenced 
significantly by age; only adventurousness was. With regard to another trait, 
depression, Wilson and Musick (2000) found that domestic volunteering had no 
effect on the levels of depression of 3617 volunteers below the age of 65. In 
173 
 
contrast, this study showed a high probability of change (99.84%) amongst the 16-
 29 age category volunteers; suggesting that older people have less tendency 
towards depression than younger people (Boniwell, 2006). As Wilson and Musick?s 
sample of volunteers were predominantly in the 30+ age group, aged between 25 
and 65, this may account for the differences (Ardelt, 2000).  
 
At the start of this study, the younger volunteers were also less trusting and less 
altruistic than their older counterparts (median pre-score of 13.5 versus 16; 
median pre-score of 17.5 versus 19 respectively). Some explanations for these 
differences include: one younger volunteer explains why altruism increased for 
him: ?I encountered basic conditions and enjoyed them, it made me realise I can 
be happy with far less than I am used to, and that I can use the rest to help others. 
People here also have far more an altruistic attitude compared to home, so I might 
have copied their habits a bit? (volunteer 9). For the trust trait, ?being thrown into 
situations? ? which many of these youngsters may not have experienced at home - 
may explain why these younger volunteers became more trusting as a result of the 
trip.  
 
Also, the pre-trip scores, of the younger volunteers, were higher than their older 
counterparts for: anxiety (median score 12 versus 8), vulnerability (median score 
11 versus 9.5) and depression (median score 10 versus 8). Some possible 
explanations described earlier include: not having the same level of 
experience/skills to deal with situations (anxiety and depression) and being less 
confident (vulnerability); so these younger volunteers were able to benefit more 
from their volunteer tourism experience because, as Wearing (2001) points out, it 
provides an opportunity for them to feel independence and handle any difficulties 
without the aid of others. Considering all this data, within the context of volunteer 
tourism, the evidence suggests that the traits are predominantly stable after the 
age of 30, thus supporting McCrae et al. (2007) notion of trait stability; so the 
younger volunteers are more likely to enjoy more beneficial impacts. 
 
7.3.2. The influence of gender 
For gender, this study?s findings suggest that some personality traits are 
influenced differently depending on whether one is female or male. In this study, 
for males, there are high probabilities of changes (increases) in trust (97.27%) and 
174 
 
dutifulness (96.88%). For females, there are high probabilities of changes 
(increases) in adventurousness (98.89%), assertiveness (98.83%) and activity 
(96.88%); and high probability of a change (decrease) in anxiety (99.91%). Bailey 
and Russell (2010) found that gender did not influence the impact of volunteer 
tourism on ?openness?, including traits such as liberalism, adventurousness, 
emotionality, intellect and artistic interests; ?civic attitudes? and ?wisdom?. Similarly, 
for this study, most of these facets of ?openness? were unlikely to change for both 
gender groups; however, in contrast, adventurousness was highly likely to change 
amongst the women (99.54% probability) but not amongst the men (discussed 
earlier in this chapter). Most personality researchers agree that there are far 
greater differences between individuals regardless of gender than between men 
and women (Harasty et al., 1997). However, in relation to the fifteen traits 
measured in this study, six traits showed significant gender differences. With 
regard to gender differences in other areas such as well-being, Ryff and Singer 
(2005) have uncovered important new findings. Specifically, women have shown 
more positive profiles for the interpersonal dimension of well-being compared to 
men, as well as on personal growth relative to men. So, it is possible that there are 
greater differences between the gender types than currently thought; an area that 
could benefit from further research especially in relation to improving the 
effectiveness of volunteer programmes for these different market segments. 
 
Some of these gender differences can be explained by heredity and environment. 
The socialisation process may explain the different outcomes for ?trust?, 
?dutifulness? and ?assertiveness?; whereas biological differences may explain the 
differences for ?adventurousness?, ?anxiety? and ?activity?. With regard to biological 
differences, there are physical differences between the two sexes including 
different levels of hormones. It is supposed that these hormones form the basis of 
differences between males and females (Albery et al., 2004). Collaer and Hines 
(1995) suggest that the effects of male sex hormones are more apparent in 
activities like physical play and aggression; possibly explaining the differences in 
the adventurousness and activity traits in this study. Another explanation for the 
gender differences is the environment and socialisation process: social learning, 
social reinforcement and observational learning (Albery et al., 2004; Bandura, 
1977). According to this account, girls receive reinforcement for stereotypically 
female activities and boys for stereotypically male activities, and observe and 
175 
 
mimic the activities carried out by each sex. In this study it was interesting to note 
that the traits stereotypically associated with ?boys?, such as adventurousness, 
activity, assertiveness and less anxiousness, changed significantly for the ?girls?; 
whereas, the traits typically associated with the ?girls?, such as dutifulness and 
trust, changed significantly for the ?boys?. It could be that the differences were a 
result of greater personal growth amongst those participants who scored lower at 
the start (Bailey and Russell, 2010); the pre-trip scores for these traits, for both 
sexes, tend to support this theory.  
 
7.3.3. The influence of project type 
Birdwell (2011), Harlow and Pomfret (2007), Sherraden et al. (2008), Wilson and 
Musick (2000), and Uriely et al. (2008) posit that the type of volunteer project could 
influence the experience and therefore the impact. This study found that some 
personality traits are influenced differently dependant on whether one is a 
community volunteer or wildlife volunteer. For this study?s volunteers, there are 
high probabilities (96.96%, 98.90% and 96.58% respectively) of changes 
(increases) in trust, assertiveness and emotionality amongst wildlife volunteers but 
not community volunteers; high probability (98.79%) of a change (decrease) in 
depression amongst community volunteers but not wildlife volunteers. In contrast, 
Lepp (2008) commented that, despite the differences between both types of 
volunteers at the start, they both benefit from their experiences in remarkably 
similar ways; these benefits related to discovery of self and others, specifically 
volunteers discovered that their daily struggles were often trivial compared to the 
daily struggles of rural Kenyans, thus offering an explanation for why depression 
decreased amongst the community volunteers in this study. Lepp?s volunteers 
were of a similar demographic profile to this study?s volunteers and participated in 
volunteer tourism on the same continent and for similar lengths of time; so none of 
these variables account for the contrasting findings. However, Lepp focussed on 
very different outcomes such as goals and life-course impacts. Little research has 
been done on the influence of project type on the volunteer tourism experience; so 
this is another area that could benefit from further research (Lepp, 2008).  
 
One possible explanation for the outcomes in trust, of the different project types, is 
the lower mean average length of stay of the wildlife volunteers (Lee and 
Woosnam, 2010), that is, six weeks. The results of the Wilcoxon matched-pairs 
176 
 
signed-rank tests, in chapter six, show that trust significantly changed for the 
shorter lengths of stay; the volunteers are more trusting at the beginning of their 
trip because everything is new and unsettled (see page 164). So, increases in 
trust amongst the wildlife volunteers, in this study, may be attributed to the shorter 
lengths of stay rather than project type. 
 
For assertiveness, one possible explanation for the changes amongst the wildlife 
volunteers is their age, as 81% of wildlife volunteers were below the age of 30 
compared to 70% of community volunteers in this study. The results of the 
Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-rank tests, in chapter six, show that that 
assertiveness is highly likely to change for the younger age category but not for 
the 30+ age group; attributed to ?taking responsibility?, as many of the younger 
volunteers were travelling alone for the first time (see page 167).  
 
For emotionality, volunteer 33 (a wildlife volunteer) shed some light on the different 
outcomes: ?watching the animals in solitude in the wide open spaces allowed one 
to relax more?; this solitary experience enabled this volunteer to become more 
aware of his self and his feelings. In support of this finding, Harlow and Pomfret 
(2007) commented on the effect of being in a natural environment, particularly in 
solitude; it provides an opportunity for deep contemplation and introspection. 
 
7.3.4. The influence of length of stay 
For length of stay, this study found that some personality traits are influenced 
differently depending on how long people volunteer in South Africa. A review of the 
literature on volunteer tourism (see Bailey and Russell, 2010; Broad, 2003; Harlow 
and Pomfret, 2007; McGehee and Santos, 2005; McIntosh and Zahra, 2007; 
Wearing, 2001; Wickens, 2011; Zahra, 2006, 2011; Zahra and McIntosh, 2007) 
describes various outcomes amongst volunteers whose length of stay ranges from 
nine days to nine months. This study?s results suggest that there are more 
potential benefits to those volunteers staying 5 to 12 weeks rather than shorter or 
longer periods of time. Laythorpe (2009) posited that long-term volunteers 
(volunteering for longer than six months) tend to become more immersed in the 
local community than short-term volunteers, and Lee and Woosnam (2010) 
question whether length of stay explains variance in volunteer tourists? personal 
transformation. Birdwell (2011) noted that long- and short-term placements have 
177 
 
similar positive outcomes for personal development and civic participation; 
however, long-term placements appear more likely to result in positive outcomes 
in skills, career and educational aspirations; thus suggesting, similarly to this 
study, that there are some differences in impact. In contrast, Lepp (2008) found 
both short- and long-term volunteers were impacted in similar ways. They were 
more able [than non-volunteers] to put things in perspective; plot a more 
meaningful course in life; find new goals; and have more favourable opinions of 
?others? in their everyday lives. However, as these impacts show, Lepp focussed 
on very different outcomes. The findings of this study also contrast to an earlier 
study on the impact of general vacation travel, where shorter vacations between 
one and seven days had more impact than longer breaks of between 5 to 12 
weeks (Alexander et al., 2010); these short-term impacts were attributed to 
?memory recall? and the ?primacy effect?. That is, experiences at the beginning of a 
holiday being recalled better because interference can cause people to forget their 
experience further into their holiday, especially if there are a number of similar 
experiences. However, this explanation does not explain the results of this study 
and why medium lengths of stay (of between one and three months) had the 
greatest impact on the volunteers. Given that project type could influence the 
volunteer tourism experience (see Birdwell, 2011; Harlow and Pomfret, 2007; 
Sherraden et al., 2008), it is possible that different types of tourism, in this case 
vacation travel versus volunteer tourism, are so very different as to account for the 
differences in impact. Wearing (2001:9) offers an alternative explanation: ?as the 
volunteer learns and interacts more with the people and the culture of the place in 
which they are living, the surrounding environment becomes more familiar...... [and 
volunteers are therefore more] able to accept and deal with their environment?. 
Alexander et al. (2010) elaborate on familiarity, and why one is less likely to 
experience long-lasting change with long-stays, using one vacationer who 
commented on his three week tour of Mayan sites in Mexico and Peru, ?the 
interest waned and we were calling temples ?poors? (piles of old rocks).....visits 
around ruins became shorter due to the similarity of places, after five weeks there 
was nothing special and it was boring compared to earlier on? (p. 10). 
 
Importantly, it appears from the results of this study, that those benefitting most 
from volunteer tourism tend to be female, aged between 16 and 29, engaged in 
wildlife projects of between 5 and 12 weeks in duration (Type 1: maximum impact). 
178 
 
Whereas those benefiting the least, tend to be male, 30+ years in age, and 
engaged in community projects for less than 5 weeks or greater than 12 weeks 
(Type 2: minimum impact). As no ?impact type? has been identified previously, this 
study offers a platform for further research on the types of volunteers that will 
benefit the most (or least) from volunteer tourism. 
 
7.4. Time elapsed post-trip 
Addressing the fifth objective, to identify whether the post-trip changes still hold 
one to two years later, this study?s results suggest, contrary to the argument 
presented by Ewert and Sibthorp (2009) that the emotional nature of volunteer 
experiences often results in strong initial gains in measured outcomes followed by 
a decline, the changes identified still held one to two years later. In other words, 
there were no significant differences between the post-trip scores and the follow-
 up scores on all 15 traits measured in this study. Although various lines of 
evidence suggest major life events exert a significant influence only in the short 
term and that people move back to their pre-existing baseline (Myers and Diener, 
1995; Suh et al., 1996; Watson 2000), this was not the case for this study?s 
volunteers. Perhaps this finding would have been different for a larger sample of 
volunteers, not just for the 16 volunteers willing to complete a third personality 
inventory for this study.  
 
According to post modernist approaches, people find themselves working, playing, 
loving and learning in different social contexts within which it is possible for them 
to take on different identities (Gergen, 1991; Wetherell, 1996). Therefore, the 
context is crucial to understanding the self because of the plasticity, changeability 
and variability of identity to fit within the context and role (Ryan and Deci, 2005). 
From this view, changes to self in one context may not necessarily transfer to 
another context (Brookes, 2003); however, the volunteers in this study provided 
evidence of seven personality trait changes being carried over into their day-to-day 
lives at home. Furthermore, there was evidence that these changes were for the 
long-term; suggesting that whilst volunteers may take on different identities whilst 
volunteering, the change itself applies to other contexts too, and provides further 
evidence of trait stability once a significant life event has exerted its influence 
(McCrae et al., 2007). In fact, the evidence presented in this study counters the 
idea that personal traits are inflexible and unlikely to be transformed by brief tourist 
179 
 
experiences (Brookes, 2003; Guttentag, 2011); moreover the changes are 
persistent enough to be maintained thereafter. 
 
Other studies of long-term impacts in different tourism contexts, such as of day 
visitors to wildlife parks (see Ballantyne and Packer, 2011; Ballantyne, Packer and 
Sutherland, 2011) show that a heightened awareness of conservation issues, 
engendered on-site, quickly dissipates; hence the need to explore ways in which 
impacts of tourism experiences can be maintained over time. In contrast, for my 
study, volunteer tourism was highly likely to change people for at least one to two 
years post-trip. The differences in results may be attributed to the activities of day-
 trippers to wildlife parks, the duration of the visit, and the age of day-trippers who 
were predominantly aged 30+ (these variables were discussed earlier in this 
chapter). Also, in this study, social media such as Facebook, and regular post-visit 
updates/messages from the volunteer tourism provider, may have extended the 
impacts for the longer-term (Ballantyne and Packer, 2011).  
 
Sin (2009) found that it was inconclusive whether volunteer tourism led to 
substantial long-term changes in her volunteers? value-system, social 
consciousness or willingness to volunteer in other arenas. Informal discussions 
with her 11 volunteers two years post-trip revealed that only four had volunteered 
substantially post-trip, of which three had conducted their volunteering overseas in 
trips similar to the one in South Africa. Of these four respondents, one was already 
a regular volunteer in Singapore prior to joining Action Africa, and the other three 
were committed to their respective volunteer tourism trips even before the trip to 
South Africa. Sin (2009) acknowledged that participating in Action Africa did not 
significantly alter respondents post-trip volunteering activities. Instead, those who 
were inclined to volunteer would have done so anyway. Similarly, the volunteers in 
this study did not show an increase in volunteering activities during the years 
following their trip. However, Bailey and Russell (2010) found that, for the wisdom 
trait, there was a strong initial gain in measured outcomes when the participants 
returned home, but a decline four weeks later; suggesting that some traits are 
influenced differently by time. In contrast, the traits measured in this study were 
consistent over time. 
 
  
180 
 
7.5. The limitations of this study 
The limitations of this study were discussed in the methodology chapter and are 
summarised here. Reflecting on the limitations of this stage of the research ? the 
quantitative method - personality inventories, (e.g. IPIP-NEO), only capture 
specific types of data, in this case personality traits, ignoring other areas subject to 
change, such as, a person?s skills, abilities, capabilities, interests, values, needs 
and others. Whilst every effort was made to address this limitation by additionally 
using structured personal interviews to identify other changes in the volunteers, 
the study may have missed opportunities to receive unexpected but potentially 
useful information from a less structured inquiry. A further limitation of personality 
inventories is acquiescence or social desirability; the tendency of respondents to 
reply in a manner that will be viewed favourably by others (Albery et al., 2004). 
Furthermore, mood and environmental influence might influence psychometric 
performance. The use of a standardised test reduces these effects but 
nevertheless a psychometric test is only a reflection of a particular academic 
theory about the nature of personality (ibid., 2004). 
 
As a shortened version of the original personality inventory was used in this study, 
the IPIP-NEO?s internal validity and reliability might have been affected. However, 
precautions were taken to reduce these effects such as carrying out test-retest 
reliability measurements on the IPIP-NEO 60-item version of the personality 
inventory using the control group (see Albery et al., 2003); ensuring a minimum of 
four questions per trait (Johnson, 2007); and using a matched control group in an 
attempt to rule out any extraneous variables that may account for the findings 
(Ferguson and Bibby, 2004). With regard to the latter, the selection of the control 
group did involve some snowballing which could have potentially introduced bias 
in the sample, particularly, if people were friends having certain things in common 
(Clegg, 1990). Furthermore, the control group could only be matched to the 
volunteer tourists on age, gender and socio-economic variables. By ignoring other 
variables, such as, culture, intelligence, previous experiences and family 
background, the differences between the volunteer tourists and the control group 
might have been attributed to any one or a combination of the unmatched 
variables (Albery et al., 2003; Clegg, 1990). However, the researcher used 
whoever was willing rather than ideal candidates, reflecting some of the realities of 
doing research. Also, the extraneous variables were not ruled out entirely because 
181 
 
the control group did not all travel to South Africa as part of their annual vacation 
and, therefore, it was possible that the trip to South Africa per se could have 
accounted for the changes post-trip, rather than the volunteer tourism experience 
itself. In an attempt to address this problem, the interviews were analysed for the 
causes of participants? changes. Participants? responses relayed very few 
references to South Africa, yet many references to the volunteering experience 
itself. 
 
Although there were benefits to exploring facets of the Five-Factor Model of 
Personality; such as, being able to measure each trait without the counter-acting 
effects of the other, it did mean that it was more difficult to draw comparisons with 
studies measuring traits at The Big Five level. For example, Bailey and Russell 
(2010) studied one of the Big Five personality traits - openness to experience - 
amongst volunteer tourists; whereas this study explored its individual facets: 
artistic interest, emotionality, adventurousness, intellect and liberalism. 
 
The sample used for this research was a volunteer sample and therefore it may 
not be typical of the Aviva volunteers. The people who volunteer for samples may 
need something such as advice or help with a personal difficulty they are 
experiencing, or it might alleviate their boredom or loneliness (Clegg, 1990). In this 
respect, the sample is biased and therefore the results of the study may not be 
representative of Aviva volunteers. With this in mind, the characteristics of Aviva 
volunteers and this study?s sample were compared (Table 2) so as to give other 
researchers the opportunity to appraise the similarities and differences. 
 
A further limitation of this study, pertaining to the fifth objective of measuring 
change one to two years later, was the poor response rate (27%); so these follow-
 up results only provide an indication of what may happen to the traits over time. 
Nevertheless, the results may provide a stimulus and a platform for further 
research. 
 
7.6. Conclusion of this chapter 
This chapter discusses the key findings of the personality inventory results. In 
summary, post-trip volunteers showed significant changes in seven personality 
traits. The use of a control group, in this study, enhanced the validity of the 
182 
 
findings because none of the control group members showed any significant 
changes in these traits. Some of these traits have not been specifically identified in 
the volunteer tourism literature; such as, ?anxiety?, ?depression? and ?activity?. 
However, they have been recognised as outcomes of domestic volunteering. But, 
in contrast to these domestic studies, the beneficial outcomes of this study were 
confined to volunteer tourists aged between 16 and 29; supporting McCrae and 
Costa?s (2003) notion that trait stability estimates are much lower for people below 
the age of 30.  
 
Whilst  other changes concur with previous volunteer tourism studies, some of this 
study?s findings differ from previous studies in that these other studies showed 
changes in ?altruism?, ?self-efficacy?, ?liberalism? and ?dutifulness?; whereas this 
study did not. Some explanations for these differences were discussed, and 
include: age differences, different project types and length of stays; also different 
methods of analysis were used.  
 
A number of theoretical concepts were also discussed to explain the significant 
changes in the personality traits of the sample, and some implications of these 
changes; such as, the beneficial impact of decreased anxiety transferring to 
volunteers? everyday lives at home and its positive effect on well-being. 
 
The influence of age, gender, project type and length of stay were also discussed. 
The evidence suggests that younger volunteers, staying between 5 and 12 weeks 
at the destination, participating in wildlife and conservation projects, are more 
likely to enjoy more beneficial impacts. For gender, men and women receive 
different beneficial impacts, which may have implications for marketers and 
programme developers.   
 
Importantly, and contrary to the evidence presented, there were no significant 
differences between the post-trip and follow-up scores on all 15 traits measured; 
suggesting that these beneficial impacts are for the long-term, and are carried over 
into their day-to-day lives at home. 
 
183 
 
Finally, the limitations of this part of the study were also discussed, such as, the 
use of a personality inventory to measure changes to ?self?; using a volunteer 
sample of volunteers; and the poor response to the follow-up personality inventory. 
 
The following chapter analyses the causes and consequences of the significant 
results from the personality inventory. That is, the Aviva volunteers? changes in 
trust, artistic interests, emotionality, activity, adventurousness, anxiety and 
depression.   
  
184 
 
8. CHAPTER EIGHT - interpretative phenomenological analysis of 
interviews 
 
 
The previous chapter discussed the changes, amongst volunteer tourists post-trip, 
from a theoretical standpoint; whereas chapter eight analyses the explanations for 
the reported causes and consequences of those changes from the volunteers' 
perspective. Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) was employed to 
interpret data from interviewing willing volunteers. These were the same 
volunteers who completed the pre- and post-trip personality inventories. Not all 60 
volunteers wanted to be interviewed. The reasons provided by six volunteers 
include: ?didn?t have time?, ?forgot?, ?other reason ? didn?t find the exercise useful?. 
So, the response rate for the email interviews was 60% (36 volunteers). 
 
8.1. The analysis 
Of those who were interviewed and therefore encouraged to reflect on their visit, 
the experience categories (reported ?causes?), defined in Table 32, that emerged 
from the responses to the question, ?describe the trip?s experience/s (if any) which 
you think may have led to each of the changes? were: ?action?  (10 occurrences), 
?involvement? (8 occurrences), ?responsibility? (16 occurrences), ?participation? (14 
occurrences), ?immersion? (4 occurrences), ?interaction? (3 occurrences) and 
?expectations/satisfaction levels? (2 occurrences).  
 
The impacts categories (reported ?consequences?), defined in Table 33, that arose 
from the responses to the question, ?what are you doing differently now as a result 
(if anything)?? were changes around: people?s ?personal circumstances? (4 
occurrences), ?behaviour? (9 occurrences), emotions? (6 occurrences), ?confidence? 
(9 occurrences), ?values? (4 occurrences), ?knowledge or skills? (3 occurrences) 
and ?attitudes? (14 occurrences).  
 
185 
 
Table 32. Master experience categories identified from interviewing volunteers 
Master category Definition Frequency 
Responsibility Looking after oneself, others or a task. 16 
Participation Observation whilst sharing in activities. 14 
Action Doing something. 10 
Involvement To become connected or associated with. 8 
Immersion To engross oneself and get absorbed in. 4 
Interaction To have an effect on each other/exchange. 3 
Expectations/Satisfaction 
levels 
What one hopes for/fulfilment of that hope. 2 
 
 
Table 33. Master impact categories identified from interviewing volunteers  
 
 
Similar questions were asked of the control group members who experienced 
significant changes in their traits. The experience category (reported ?cause?) was: 
?responsibility? (4 occurrences).  
The impacts categories (reported ?consequences?) that emerged were changes in: 
?behaviour? (3 occurrences) and ?attitudes? (1 occurrence). 
 
The large difference between the number of categories identified from the 
volunteers and those of the control group were the result of the larger number of 
significant changes amongst the volunteers. What follows is a synthesis of the 
statistical results described earlier and the interviews with the volunteers and 
control group. Both groups? interviews are analysed, by trait, in the following 
section, thus offering explanations for the changes and how those changes 
manifest themselves in their everyday lives. A tabular representation of this 
analysis is presented in Table 34. 
Master category Definition Frequency 
Attitudes Our response tendency toward a person, object or situation. 14 
Confidence Belief in one's personal worth and likelihood of succeeding. 9 
Behaviour Acting in a particular way as a result of biological functions, 
perceptions, unconscious forces, attitudes, beliefs and 
feelings. 
9 
Emotions Feelings based on our appraisal of the situation and the 
possible actions we might take in relation to it. 
6 
Values Ideas about what people should do. 4 
Personal circumstances Conditions that influence a person. 4 
 Knowledge or skills Learning. 3 
 
 
186 
 
Table 34. A tabular representation of the findings 
Experience 
CATEGORY 
EXAMPLE TRAIT IMPACT DAY-TO-DAY 
IMPACT 
EXAMPLE VOLUNTEER 
Action I did find the shifts really tough going. It was a physical job. 
We would fill the babies bottles in the morning and chop the 
veg for the day but the hard work was compensated by being 
with the children and getting to know them. We were always 
on the go throughout our shift 
Activity Level  Behaviour I have a lot more get up and go and don't get bored at 
all.  I fill my time a lot better. Rather than watching TV 
all night, I watch a programme I find interesting and 
then read a book rather than watching TV and not 
really enjoying it. I really want to fill my time up well. In 
saying that, if I feel I need a rest, I will take a rest too 
10 
Action At the children's home I was more active Activity Level  Personal 
circumstances 
It contributed to losing 3 stone in weight so it has 
certainly helped with my activity level 
30 
Action I got a blood clot in my leg whilst volunteering Activity Level  Personal 
circumstances 
I am trying to keep [physically]  active 34 
Action I did my sky dive, climbed mountains, hiked glaciers, did shark 
cage diving and much more and had a snake wrapped round 
my neck...while I was away I very much had the attitude of feel 
the fear and do it anyway. 
Adventurousness No further 
information 
No further information 29 
Action While there I did a lot of crazy things that I never thought I 
would do ? skydiving, shark cage diving, crawling through 
caves, etc.   
Adventurousness  Values I have always been really tight with my spending, but 
I?ve realized now that you only live once so don?t hold 
back if there?s something you want to do 
32 
Action Watching  the animals, in solitude, in the wide open spaces 
allowed me to relax more 
Anxiety Attitudes I now live without any hang ups and just let it all 
happen even to the point I did not follow the recent 
budget and have no idea of the changes as I feel I can 
do nothing about it 
33 
Action Watching  the animals, in solitude, in the wide open spaces 
allowed me to relax more 
Anxiety Behaviour I am doing more with my time outside the house as I 
hate being alone, I now volunteer regularly at a local 
school listening to and helping 8 year olds read. 
33 
Action Watching  the animals, in solitude, in the wide open spaces 
allowed me to relax more 
Anxiety Emotions I am coping better with the loss of my wife  33 
Action Toured around East Africa for a few weeks, constantly in a 
different area and situation and meeting various people 
everyday 
Anxiety  Confidence I am not quite as nervous now in new situations 21 
Action I did my sky dive, climbed mountains, hiked glaciers, did shark 
cage diving and much more, and had a snake wrapped round 
my neck...while I was away I very much had the attitude of feel 
the fear and do it anyway. 
Anxiety  Confidence I really hope my confidence has changed in work 
situations 
29 
Action I visited art museums to learn about the history of SA Artistic Interests   Knowledge 
and skills 
I now have an interest in learning about the history of 
other countries I visit 
2 
Action I saw some terrible things whilst travelling around Depression  Attitudes I have a lighter outlook on things 12 
Expectations 
and 
Satisfaction 
levels 
Prior to my trip to SA I felt assured that I was in good hands 
and that I would be looked after during my time there. As it 
transpired, the volunteer house was absolutely filthy, over-
 crowded and extremely untidy and there were issues of 
Anxiety  Attitudes If I return to SA it will be under very different 
circumstances, we older volunteers will secure our 
own arrangements and financial contributions to the 
projects; and research our own projects before 
26 
187 
 
burglary within the house. I was offered accommodation via a 
member of the Aviva staff which I gratefully accepted. This 
solution however was not without its own issues. The 
accommodation was out of town, I had to rely on the host to 
transport me to places. The host insisted on waiting for me 
therefore I had to return at a specific time. Therefore my 
leisure time was restricted 
committing 
Expectations 
and 
Satisfaction 
levels 
Prior to my trip to SA I felt assured that I was in good hands 
and that I would be looked after during my time there. As it 
transpired, the volunteer house was absolutely filthy, over-
 crowded and extremely untidy and there were issues of 
burglary within the house. I was offered accommodation via a 
member of the Aviva staff which I gratefully accepted. This 
solution however was not without its own issues. The 
accommodation was out of town, I had to rely on the host to 
transport me to places. The host insisted on waiting for me 
therefore I had to return at a specific time. Therefore my 
leisure time was restricted 
Anxiety  Emotions All in all it was a tense time and I would never accept 
volunteer accommodation on 'trust' again. Actually I 
feel that this was a trade description issue as the 
accommodation was not as it was advertised; had I 
been asked if I would be happy to share a room with 
young men I would have said NO, had I been asked if 
I would live in poor and badly managed 
accommodation, I would have said NO. As it happens, 
the choices I made were based on the information 
provided which did not live up to its description 
26 
Expectations 
and 
Satisfaction 
levels 
I was very ill and people were astonishingly kind Trust  Attitudes I realised that there are also genuine and trustworthy 
people in the world which has made me less 
suspicious and more willing to accept people 
3 
Immersion Took the opportunity for cultural immersion, such as eating 
traditional foods, and visiting traditional villages 
Adventurousness No further 
information 
No further information 2 
Immersion We didn't feel like tourists and that was a great feeling Artistic Interests  Behaviour We are going back to SA! 28 
Immersion I lived in a different country, with different people and a 
different language 
Emotionality  Knowledge 
and skills 
Learned a lot especially respect of other cultures and 
understanding other?s feelings and their individuality 
13 
Interaction Met new people Anxiety  Confidence I have greater confidence 9 
Interaction We got to know people from all over the world and we had so 
much fun 
Artistic Interests   Knowledge 
and skills 
I learned about SA history 28 
Involvement There was so much to do and see and I didn't want to miss 
out. I also found myself more motivated doing the regular 
things I could do back home 
Activity Level  Behaviour I am more motivated to go out and do things instead 
of getting back into the same everyday routine 
15 
Involvement I did not want to miss out on experiences you can't do at home 
such as shark diving and sand boarding and experiencing 
different cultures 
Adventurousness  Confidence I am not quite as nervous to try new experiences 21 
Involvement At the Inkwenkwesi Conservation and Penguin Conservation 
Project I met wonderful people with whom I still keep in 
contact 
Emotionality  No further 
information 
No further information 13 
Involvement I met so many new lovely people who were in the same 
situation as me 
Trust  Attitudes I would now trust people with my life 7 
Involvement I was thrown into a situation where you live and work with 
people you've never met before 
Trust  Attitudes I trust people more now 17 
Involvement I was constantly with people I didn't know and therefore had to Trust  No further No further information 31 
188 
 
trust them and go with the flow that I got used to trusting 
people and hoping for the best 
information 
Participation Seeing poverty and seeing how little people have in 
Khayelitsha [at the children?s home] 
Activity level  Attitudes It made me realise the value of money a lot more. 
Before, I don't think I really valued money at all and 
used to waste it on things I didn't really need. I have a 
lot more respect for money than I used to have 
10 
Participation Seeing poverty and seeing how little people have in 
Khayelitsha [at the children?s home] 
Activity level  Personal 
circumstances 
The work at Baphumelele made me a lot more 
resilient and stronger physically 
10 
Participation Took the opportunity to try new things such as white water 
rafting 
Adventurousness  No further 
information 
No further information 2 
Participation I have seen kids with not enough food, nothing to look forward 
to and no toys and they are still the happiest kids in the world! 
All they want is to be held 
Anxiety Attitudes It changed my whole perspective, things that seemed 
important are no longer 
24 
Participation I have seen kids with not enough food, nothing to look forward 
to and no toys and they are still the happiest kids in the world! 
All they want is to be held 
Anxiety Attitudes It changed my whole perspective, things that seemed 
important are no longer 
24 
Participation Found goodness in people that I was beginning to think 
doesn't exist anymore 
Anxiety  Emotions I think I have found a purpose in life 22 
Participation Could not get over how happy the children were although they 
had nothing material 
Anxiety  Emotions I have so much going on in my head at the present 
time; it was the most thought provoking experience of 
my life 
23 
Participation Could not get over how happy the children were although they 
had nothing material 
Anxiety  Values It made me think of what I have and do I really need it 23 
Participation I opened my eyes to another country Artistic Interests Attitudes I appreciate art more 16 
Participation Saw people who had nothing which made me feel very humble Depression  Attitudes I look at the positive side of things now because I 
realise I have food, clothes and water 
11 
Participation Being around the kids at the children's home was a definite 
help in getting over the issues I had {a huge personal trauma 
before I left}, seeing them so happy really rubs off, and when 
you see how little they had. 
Depression  Attitudes It really put my life in perspective 30 
Participation I saw the good people could do if they take time out for others Depression  Behaviour I am grateful for what I have and now have a sense of 
duty to help whilst I can 
12 
Participation The children I cared for suffered many disadvantages but they 
were generally very positive and dealt with things the best way 
they could 
Depression  Emotions Volunteering opened my eyes about other people?s 
way of life 
15 
Participation Encountered people living with HIV and AIDS who were also 
warm, kind and happy 
Depression  Values I realised that no matter how bad things are, you have 
got to make the most of life and live life to the full 
3 
Participation I saw other volunteers being able to do jobs that I thought only 
I could do properly 
Trust  Attitudes It made me realise that 'others' are just as capable as 
me 
12 
Responsible Being placed in a different country for the first time on your 
own 
Adventurousness  Confidence I feel a sense of achievement and will do more 
travelling as a woman solo traveller 
3 
Responsible Travelling on your own to a new country Adventurousness  No further 
information 
No further information 2 
Responsible Making the trip on my own and meeting new people Anxiety Confidence I have greater confidence 9 
189 
 
Responsible Worked with animals that depend on you every day for their 
lives & worked with children who look up to you & rely on you 
each & everyday, they always had unconditional love.  They 
judge you for who you are in the inside & not what you have 
on the outside 
Anxiety  Attitudes It gave me a new outlook on life. It made me realise 
that I shouldn't sweat the small stuff, I was always 
making sure that everything was perfect (with work, 
everyone's comfort, my house needed to be spotless 
etc). Now I realise that there is so much more to life 
than that 
22 
Responsible Worked with animals that depend on you every day for their 
lives & worked with children who look up to you & rely on you 
each & everyday, they always had unconditional love.  They 
judge you for who you are in the inside & not what you have 
on the outside 
Anxiety  Behaviour I was always busy (with God only knows what) & now 
I take the time to breathe & relax, and just hang out & 
enjoy life a little more 
22 
Responsible Met situations that took me outside my comfort zone, for e.g. 
not being picked up when I was supposed to be  
Anxiety  Confidence I feel I could deal with other situations now, which take 
me outside my comfort zone 
4 
Responsible When I first arrived I was really scared to walk anywhere even 
during the day and with others, I always felt like I was going to 
be mugged or something 
Anxiety  Confidence After a few weeks I started to feel more comfortable 
and was able to walk to work by myself, walk to the 
mall, etc.  
32 
Responsible I'm a social worker in a child protection team so having a 
break from that without the pressure for 6 months was great 
Anxiety  No further 
information 
No further information 34 
Responsible Worked with animals that depend on you every day for their 
lives & worked with children who look up to you & rely on you 
each & everyday, they always had unconditional love.  They 
judge you for who you are in the inside & not what you have 
on the outside 
Anxiety  Values I saw how fast life can pass you by & that there is too 
much time wasting worrying about the silly things that 
don't really matter in life 
22 
Responsible I was away from home, not around my family or any other 
significant responsibilities 
Depression  No further 
information 
No further information 31 
Responsible I lived in a different country, with different people and a 
different language 
Emotionality  No further 
information 
No further information 13 
 
 
 
190 
 
8.1.1. Anxiety 
Anxiety levels significantly decreased post-trip (W+ = 1309.5, W- = 343.5, N = 57, 
p <= 0.0001); the volunteer tourists worry less about things, are calm and 
generally less fearful. Interestingly, Deci and Ryan (2000) found that the 
management of anxiety is a prerequisite for personal growth; otherwise, people 
cling to the safety of what they already know and do not change. Interviewed 
respondents threw some light on the decreased anxiety levels resulting from the 
trip: ?I was always busy (with God only knows what) and now I take the time to 
breathe and relax and just hang out and enjoy life a little more? (volunteer 22). The 
?behavioural change? in this volunteer?s life, she believes, was brought about by 
?taking responsibility?: ?I worked with children who look up to you and rely on you 
each and every day, they always had unconditional love?. She also spoke of 
?attitude change?: ?It gave me a new outlook on life. It made me realise that I 
shouldn't sweat the small stuff, now I realise that there is so much more to life than 
that?. These changes were also a result of a ?participatory experience?: ?I found 
goodness in people that I was beginning to think doesn't exist anymore?.  
 
An ?emotion change? also emerged: ?I have so much going on in my head at the 
present time; it was the most thought provoking experience of my life? (volunteer 
23). This participant also experienced a ?value change?: ?It made me think of what I 
have and do I really need it?. Both these changes, for this volunteer, were brought 
about by a ?participatory experience?: ?not [being able to] get over how happy the 
children were although they had nothing material?.  
 
Volunteer 24 expressed similar views: ?I have seen kids with not enough food, 
nothing to look forward to and no toys and they are still the happiest kids in the 
world! All they want is to be held?; this affected her ?attitude?: ?It changed my whole 
perspective; things that seemed important are no longer?. 
 
?Confidence? ? decreased vulnerability - also emerged as a theme: ?I feel I could 
deal with other situations now, which take me outside my comfort zone? (volunteer 
4); ?I am not quite as nervous now in new situations? (volunteer 21); ?I have 
greater confidence? (volunteer 9); ?after a few weeks I started to feel more 
comfortable and was able to walk to work by myself, walk to the mall, etc? 
(volunteer 32). 
191 
 
 
Confidence is demonstrated by some of these volunteers ?taking responsibility?: ?I 
met situations that took me outside my comfort zone? (volunteer 4); ?I made the 
trip on my own and met new people. I arranged a lot of stuff myself during my trip 
and found solutions to problems? (volunteer 9); ?when I first arrived I was really 
scared to walk anywhere even during the day and with others, I always felt like I 
was going to be mugged or something? (volunteer 32). Whilst for others (volunteer 
21), the change was expressed in terms of her ?doing something ? acting?: ?I 
toured around East Africa for a few weeks, constantly in a different area and 
situation and meeting various people every day?.   
 
Another volunteer 33 described the ?action? of ?watching the animals, in solitude, in 
the wide open spaces? and how this allowed him ?to relax more?. Since returning 
home, he maintains a ?behavioural change?: ?I am doing more with my time outside 
the house?, for example, ?I now volunteer regularly at a local school listening to 
and helping 8 year olds read?. The experience had an ?emotional impact?: ?I am 
coping better with the loss of my wife? and additionally brought about ?attitude 
changes?: ?I now live without any hang ups and just let it all happen even to the 
point I did not follow the recent budget and have no idea of the changes as I feel I 
can do nothing about it?. 
 
One volunteer 34, a social worker in a child protection team, attributed her 
decreased anxiety to ?having a break from social work [?responsibility?]; without the 
pressure for 6 months was great?. 
 
The emerging codes from the changes - impacts - described under the anxiety trait 
thus include: changes in behaviour, emotions, confidence, values and attitudes. 
The emerging themes from the experiences explaining the changes include: 
action, responsibility, participation and interaction.  
 
8.1.2. Artistic Interests 
Volunteers experienced a significant increased interest in the arts and nature post-
 trip (W+ = 293.5, W- = 652.5, N = 43, p <= 0.031); the volunteer tourists identify 
beauty, both in art and in nature and become more easily involved and absorbed 
in artistic and natural events. This trait is a subset of openness to experience and 
192 
 
is often presented as healthier and more mature by psychologists (The IPIP Web 
site at http://ipip.ori.org).  
 
Evidence of this increased interest can be found in the interview responses from 
volunteers. Volunteer 16 wrote about her ?attitude? change: ?I appreciate art more?. 
This change she attributed to her ?participation? in volunteering: ?It opened my eyes 
to another country?.  
 
Volunteer 2 spoke of her increased ?knowledge or skills?: ?I now have an interest in 
learning about the history of other countries I visit? because ?I visited art museums 
to learn about the history of SA? ? denoting ?action?.  
 
Similarly, volunteer 28 commented: ?I learned about SA history?. This prompted 
her to: ?go back to SA!? ? a ?behaviour? change. She added that ?we didn't feel like 
tourists and that was a great feeling? and ?we got to know people from all over the 
world and we had so much fun?, reflecting her ?immersion? in the culture and 
?interaction? with others. 
 
The emerging codes from the changes - impacts - described under artistic interest 
trait thus include: changes in attitude, knowledge or skills and behaviour. The 
emerging themes from the experiences explaining the changes include: 
participation, immersion and interaction.  
 
8.1.3. Depression 
The levels of depression significantly decreased post-trip (W+ = 897.0, W- = 
279.0, N = 48, p <= 0.002); the volunteer tourists feel happier and more positive 
and have fewer tendencies to feel sad, dejected, or discouraged. Van Willigen 
(2000) and Frankl (2004), similarly, found that depression decreases as a result of 
engagement in a meaningful activity such as volunteer work.  
 
Volunteer 12 responded: ?I am grateful for what I have and now have a sense of 
duty to help whilst I can? - a ?behavioural change? that was also accompanied by 
an ?attitude change?: ?I have a lighter outlook on things?.  
 
193 
 
Volunteer 30 similarly described an ?attitude change? - the experience ?really put 
my life in perspective?. She attributed this to her ?participation?: ?being around the 
kids at the children's home?. She explained how this helped her: ?in getting over 
the issues I had, a huge personal trauma before I left? because ?seeing them [the 
kids] so happy really rubs off, when you see how little they have?. 
 
Volunteer 15 expressed an ?emotional change?: ?volunteering opened my eyes 
about other people?s way of life .......I have a sense of accomplishment?. As for 
volunteer 30, she ascribed this change to her ?participation?: ?the children I cared 
for suffered many disadvantages but they were generally very positive and dealt 
with things the best way they could?. 
  
Volunteer 3 experienced a ?value change?: ?I realised that no matter how bad 
things are you have got to make the most of life and live life to the full?. This, she 
felt, was brought about by her ?encounter with people living with HIV and AIDS 
who were also warm, kind and happy? - a ?participatory experience?.  
 
?Attitude change? was also evident in volunteer 11: ?I look at the positive side of 
things now because I realise I have food, clothes and water?. She attributed this 
change to her ?participation?: ?seeing people who had nothing which made me feel 
very humble?.   
On returning home, one volunteer 31 attributed her decreased depression to her 
break from significant responsibility: ?being away from home, not around my family 
or any other significant responsibilities?. 
 
The emerging codes from the changes described under the depression trait were 
similar to those described under the anxiety trait and include changes in 
behaviour, emotions, values and attitudes. The emerging themes for the volunteer 
experience were participation and responsibility. 
 
8.1.4. Assertiveness 
The levels of assertiveness significantly increased post-trip (W+ = 360.0, W- = 
915.0, N = 50, p <= 0.007); the volunteer tourists are likely to speak out more, take 
charge, and direct the activities of others, and have more of a tendency towards 
leading.  
194 
 
 
It was noted earlier, in chapter six, that this result may not be sufficiently reliable to 
draw definitive statistical conclusions on any potential changes. The reason for this 
was that the test-retest reliability scores for this trait could not be confirmed; 
additionally, the control group had significant differences between their first and 
second test scores suggesting day-to-day life could have increased assertiveness 
rather than the volunteering experience. Nevertheless, there is evidence of change 
in this trait amongst the voices of other volunteers (refer to Lepp, 2008; McGehee 
and Santos, 2005; Wearing, 2001) and in the interview responses from this study?s 
volunteers (below). Moreover, the transparency of the interpretation of these 
accounts allows the readers to judge the findings for them-selves.  
 
Volunteer 21 relayed: ?By the time I left the children I was quite happy to tell them 
off if they needed it and to help discipline them? ? demonstrating her ?involvement? 
with children.  
 
Other volunteers associated their experience of increased assertiveness with their 
experience of ?taking responsibility?: ?I try to find solutions to problems? (volunteer 
9); ?I proved to myself what I am capable of - going to another country by your-self 
to do something worthwhile? (volunteer 15); and ?we had to take charge and 
responsibility for the children? (volunteer 28). Volunteer 32 comments on her 
experience at the volunteer house: ?there were a lot of volunteers who were on 
their own for the first time (and some older ones too) who weren?t doing their share 
around the house.....I was the one who would step up and talk to them about it?, 
thus implying that she took ?responsibility? for the situation. 
 
Volunteer 28 describes an ?immersive experience?: ?they called us mama from the 
second we walked in. They made us feel so welcome, they needed so much love 
and care?; also, ?interaction?: ?I felt I had to prove to the ladies who worked there 
that I didn't feel like a better person and that I just wanted to help and after some 
time we became good friends ......, and they became as fond of us as we of them?. 
This impact was one of increased ?confidence?: ?I learned so much about taking 
chances and not to be afraid of doing new things?.  
 
195 
 
The emerging code from the changes described under the assertiveness trait was 
confidence and the emerging themes, from the experiences, were involvement, 
taking responsibility, immersion and interaction.  
 
As previously mentioned, assertiveness was also a trait that significantly changed 
(increased) amongst the control group over a similar period of time (W+ = 95.5, W- 
= 282.5, N = 27, p <= 0.025). Control members describe their last six months, of 
taking ?responsibility?: ?I?ve had an unstable 7 months because our house has been 
on the market with no imminent sale and my husband took voluntary redundancy, 
so I have had to be more assertive as a result? (control 2); ?I have had to take 
charge of my elderly parents? (control 5); ?I dealt with the pensioners medical aid 
recently and have had to steer the action against our old employer on behalf of ex-
 employees? (control 6); and ?my work position has altered significantly and a new 
member of staff is working in the capacity of my manager? (control 22). These 
experiences were manifested in the control group members? day-to-day 
?behaviour? and ?attitudes?. Control 2 relays how she is ?behaving?:  ?over planning 
and going through a lot of 'what if' scenarios?. Control 5 says of his behavioural 
changes: ?I am organising aspects of my parents? life? and control 22 comments: ?I 
have had to become more assertive and willing to speak out because otherwise I 
would have lost my grip on the job?. There was also an ?attitude? change for one 
control member who reflects: ?I am now more likely to speak out in other situations 
too? (control 6).  
 
Therefore, significant differences in assertiveness and the resulting behaviour and 
attitudes brought about by taking responsibility for oneself, others or a task, are 
not exclusive to the volunteer experience.  
 
8.1.5. Emotionality 
Emotionality significantly increased post-trip (W+ = 333.5, W- = 701.5, N = 45, p 
<= 0.038); the volunteer tourists have better access to, and awareness of, their 
own feelings. There is evidence of changes in this trait in other studies. Bailey and 
Russell (2010), for example, identified positive changes in ?openness to 
experience?, one of the ?Big Five? personality traits of which ?emotionality? is a sub-
 set. 
 
196 
 
Volunteer 13 said: ?I learned a lot especially respect of other cultures and 
understanding others? feelings and their individuality? ? ?gaining knowledge or 
skills?. The same volunteer also felt that the experience was one of cultural 
?immersion? and ?taking responsibility? for oneself: ?living in a different country, with 
different people and a different language?.  
 
The recurring themes from the experience were thus: gaining ?knowledge or skills?, 
cultural ?immersion? and ?taking responsibility?. 
 
8.1.6. Adventurousness 
Adventurousness significantly increased post-trip (W+ = 392.0, W- = 986.0, N = 
52, p <= 0.007); the volunteer tourists are more eager to try new activities, travel to 
foreign lands and experience different things, finding familiarity and routine boring. 
Again, there is evidence of changes in this trait in other studies. Bailey and Russell 
(2010), for example, identified positive changes in ?openness to experience?, one 
of the ?Big Five? personality traits of which ?adventurousness? is also a sub-set.  
 
This study?s volunteers experienced having increased ?confidence?: ?I am not quite 
as nervous to try new experiences? (volunteer 21); ?I feel a sense of achievement 
and will do more travelling as a woman solo traveller? (volunteer 3). The increased 
confidence for  volunteer 21 was a result of getting ?involved? in the experience: 
?not wanting to miss out on experiences you can't do at home such as shark diving 
and sand boarding and experiencing different cultures?.  
 
For volunteer 3, the change was a result of ?taking responsibility?: ?being placed in 
a different country for the first time on your own?. Volunteer 2 expressed the same 
sentiment: ?travelling on your own to a new country?. She additionally described 
experiences involving ?participation? and ?immersion?: ?I took the opportunity to try 
new things such as white water rafting, and took the opportunity for cultural 
immersion?.  
 
Volunteer 29 experienced ?action?: ?I did my sky dive, climbed mountains, hiked 
glaciers, did shark cage-diving and much more.....oh and had a snake wrapped 
round my neck...while I was away I very much had the attitude of feel the fear and 
do it anyway.? A similar response was expressed by volunteer 32: ?I did a lot of 
197 
 
crazy things that I never thought I would do ? skydiving, shark cage-diving, 
crawling through caves, etc.? She went on to describe a consequential ?value? 
change: ?I have always been really tight with my spending, but I?ve realized now 
that you only live once so don?t hold back if there?s something you want to do?. 
 
The recurring change themes were thus confidence and value changes. The 
experience themes were involvement, participation, responsibility, immersion and 
action. 
 
8.1.7. Vulnerability 
Vulnerability significantly decreased post-trip (W+ = 1137.0, W- = 403.0, N = 55, p 
<= 0.002); the volunteer tourists generally feel more poised, confident and think 
more clearly under stress. Increased confidence levels were found to be an impact 
of many volunteer tourism research studies (refer to Bailey and Russell, 2010; 
Broad, 2003; Harlow and Pomfret, 2007; Lepp, 2008; Wearing, 2001). However it 
was noted earlier (chapter seven) that, for this study, it is unwise to draw any 
conclusions on this trait-change, as a result of volunteering, because the volunteer 
group and control group were significantly different at the start.  
 
Nevertheless, there is evidence of change in this trait in the interview responses 
from this study?s volunteers (below). Moreover, the transparency of the 
interpretation of these accounts allows the reader to judge the findings in a 
different way.  
 
Volunteers noted changes in ?personal circumstances?: ?I have since changed 
jobs? (volunteer 6); changes in ?confidence?: ?my confidence has grown 
dramatically and I take up every single opportunity now? (volunteer 7); an ?attitude? 
change: ?I am less caught up and worried about small things? (volunteer 10); and 
an ?emotional? change: ?During my trip home, my first flight was late and I made it 
to my second flight just in time, but during the whole thing I told myself not to panic 
and just stay focussed and if I missed my flight I could always catch another and 
would deal with it if the time came? (volunteer 32). 
 
Volunteer 32 pointed to the ?responsibility? for one-self: ?This was my first time 
travelling by myself and going overseas so I was really scared.... making it through 
198 
 
the airports and flights by myself?. Similarly, volunteer 7 pointed to the 
?responsibility? of ?going to another continent without having much contact with 
home and being far away? and ?participation? in various projects: ?I saw people and 
children who were much more vulnerable than me?; also, ?I saw how resilient the 
children were, they never whined or complained, just got on with things, it made 
me realise that I am quite a complainer. I also saw the care workers who work so 
hard for so little money; it made me realise how cushy my life is? (Volunteer 10). 
 
These themes were similar to those identified in other traits: changes in 
confidence, attitudes and emotional changes as a result of having responsibilities 
and participation. However, a new emerging code was also identified - change to 
personal circumstances. 
 
8.1.8. Trust 
Another trait that was found to be significant in this study was trust. Trust 
significantly increased post-trip (W+ = 404.5, W- = 973.5, N = 52, p <= 0.010); the 
volunteer tourists assume people are fair, honest and have good intentions. A 
number of volunteer tourism studies have identified positive changes in ?openness 
to experience?, one of the ?Big Five? personality traits of which ?trust? is a sub-set 
(Bailey and Russell, 2010; Harlow and Pomfret; 2007). 
 
Three volunteers described their ?involvement? in the volunteer experience: ?I met 
so many new lovely people who were in the same situation as me? (volunteer 7); ?I 
was thrown into a situation where you live and work with people you've never met 
before? (volunteer 17); ?I was constantly with people I didn't know and therefore 
had to trust them and go with the flow that I got used to trusting people and hoping 
for the best? (volunteer 31).  
 
Another volunteer described his ?participation?: I saw other volunteers being able to 
do jobs that I thought only I could do properly? (volunteer 12). 
Volunteer 3 described how the experience went beyond her ?expectation?: ?I was 
very ill and people were astonishingly kind?. 
 
The effects of their involvement, participation and expectation, resulted in attitude 
changes: ?I realised that there are also genuine and trustworthy people in the 
199 
 
world which has made me less suspicious and more willing to accept people? 
(volunteer 3); ?I would now trust people with my life? (volunteer 7); ?It made me 
realise that 'others' are just as capable as me? (volunteer 12); ?I trust people more 
now? (volunteer 17). 
 
The recurring change theme was thus attitude changes. The experience themes 
were involvement, participation and expectation; the latter being a new emerging 
theme. 
 
8.1.9. Activity 
Activity levels significantly changed (increased) as a result of the international 
volunteering experience (W+ = 302.0, W- = 923.0, N = 49, p <= 0.002); the 
volunteer tourists lead a faster-paced, busier life, and move about more quickly, 
energetically and vigorously, and are more likely to become involved in many 
activities. Similarities can be drawn between ?activity level? and ?social movement 
activities?, although the latter is most likely a sub-set. McGehee (2002, 2005), 
McGehee and Santos (2005) and Zahra (2011) found the volunteer tourism 
experience inspires people to become more socially and politically active and to 
participate in social movements at home. However, there is no evidence of social 
action or participation in social movements amongst this study?s volunteers.  
 
Some other ?actions? were, nevertheless, identified. Volunteer 10 commented on 
how she has ?a lot more get up and go and doesn?t get bored at all. I fill my time a 
lot better. Rather than watching TV all night, I watch a programme I find interesting 
and then read a book rather than watching TV and not really enjoying it. I really 
want to fill my time up well. In saying that, if I feel I need a rest, I will take a rest 
too?. She said this was a result of her ?action? at the children?s home: ?I did find the 
shifts really tough going. It was a physical job. We would fill the babies bottles in 
the morning and chop the veg for the day but the hard work was compensated by 
being with the children and getting to know them. We were always on the go 
throughout our shift?. She additionally wrote of a change in ?attitude? and ?personal 
circumstance?: ?It made me realise the value of money a lot more. Before, I don't 
think I really valued money at all and used to waste it on things I didn't really need. 
I have a lot more respect for money than I used to have?; ?the work at 
Baphumelele made me a lot more resilient and stronger physically?. 
200 
 
 
Similarly, Volunteers 30 and 34 wrote of how their ?personal circumstances? 
changed: ?it contributed to my losing 3 stone in weight so it has certainly helped 
with my activity level? as a result of ?the action at the children's home?; ?I am trying 
to keep [physically] active?.  
Volunteer 15 said: ?I am more motivated to go out and do things instead of getting 
back into the same everyday routine? ? a ?behavioural? change. She attributed this 
change to her ?involvement?: ?there was so much to do and see and I didn't want to 
miss out. I also found myself more motivated doing the regular things I could do 
back home?. 
 
The recurring change themes were thus behaviour, personal circumstance and 
attitude changes. The experience themes were action and involvement. 
 
8.1.10. Individual deviances 
Noting the limitations of investigating group scores in this study, it was useful to 
explore some individual deviances too. For example, volunteer 26, relayed how 
her ?expectations? had not been met during the trip, causing increased anxiety:  
 
Prior to my trip to SA I felt assured that I was in good hands and that I 
would be looked after during my time there. As it transpired, the 
volunteer house was absolutely filthy, over-crowded and extremely 
untidy and there were issues of burglary within the house. I was offered 
accommodation via a member of the Aviva staff which I gratefully 
accepted. This solution however was not without its own issues. The 
accommodation was out of town, I had to rely on the host to transport 
me to places. The host insisted on waiting for me therefore I had to 
return at a specific time. Therefore my leisure time was restricted. 
 
Her reaction afterwards, was an ?emotional? one:  
 
All in all it was a tense time and I would never accept volunteer 
accommodation on 'trust' again. Actually I feel that this was a trade 
description issue as the accommodation was not as it was advertised; 
had I been asked if I would be happy to share a room with young men I 
201 
 
would have said NO, had I been asked if I would live in poor and badly 
managed accommodation, I would have said NO. As it happens, the 
choices I made were based on the information provided which did not 
live up to its description.  
 
This resulted in her ?attitude change?: ?If I return to SA it will be under very different 
circumstances, we older volunteers will secure our own arrangements and 
financial contributions to the projects, and research our own projects before 
committing?.  
 
This ?attitude? contrasts to the majority of responses from volunteers who said they 
would participate in a similar project either in SA or elsewhere.  
 
A further deviance from the group emerged from the results of volunteer 33. For 
this volunteer, his assertiveness decreased rather than increased post-trip. He 
recalled his ?interaction? with two ladies: ?I was with two ladies, one of whom was 
very assertive and I tended to go with the flow to make things easier for us all?, as 
a result he says, ?I now allow things to happen and live life more ?on a need to 
know? basis rather than making decisions for myself all the time?, indicating an 
?attitude? change. However, unlike volunteer 26, this volunteer ?would do it all 
again?. 
  
Volunteer 35, dissimilar to the group norm, showed an overall increase in 
depression following her trip. She attributed this to not being able to ?get the kids 
to listen; so, [her] anxiety and feelings of being useless increased which 
exacerbated an underlying medical condition?. She went on to say how her 
depression worsened because ?I felt like I wasn?t doing a good enough job?. 
Despite this, however, she did comment on how much she enjoyed the experience 
and explained to me that she ?was in a vulnerable state trying to overcome an 
eating disorder and recognised that perhaps [she] should have volunteered a few 
years later?. 
 
  
202 
 
8.2. The influence of volunteering, travel, tourism, 
South Africa 
Chapter four highlighted how the researcher would address issues around validity 
and reliability of the results. One of the issues was maintaining internal validity, by 
ruling out extraneous variables that may account for the results because the 
control group did not all travel to South Africa as part of their annual vacation. In 
an attempt to eliminate South Africa per se, the volunteers were asked, during 
their email interviews, about their trip and specifically about the experiences they 
believe changed them. The majority of responses indicated that it was a 
combination of the travel, volunteering and tourism activities rather than the trip to 
South Africa per se; only two (out of 36) responses attributed their changes to 
?being in South Africa?, see Table 35.  
 
8.3. Conclusion of this chapter 
Interviews with the volunteers provided explanations for the causes and 
consequences of volunteering with Aviva in South Africa. The interpretative 
phenomenological analysis of these interviews allowed themes to emerge: the 
experience categories (reported ?causes?) included: ?action?, ?involvement?, 
?responsibility?, ?participation?, ?immersion?, ?interaction? and 
?expectations/satisfaction levels?; the impacts categories (reported ?consequences?) 
were changes around: people?s ?personal circumstances?, ?behaviour?, emotions?, 
?confidence?, ?values?, ?knowledge or skills? and ?attitudes?. The following chapter 
discusses this analysis within the notion of experiential engagement in an attempt 
to explain transformation in the volunteers, and points to the limitations of this part 
of the study.  
 
 
 
  
203 
 
Table 35. The factors influencing the experience 
Descriptions of the causes of trait changes ? verbatim extracts of the 
interviews 
Category 
Toured around East Africa for a few weeks, constantly in a different area and situation and meeting 
various people everyday 
Travel and Tourism 
I did find the shifts really tough going. It was a physical job. We would fill the babies bottles in the 
morning and chop the veg for the day but the hard work was compensated by being with the 
children and getting to know them. We were always on the go throughout our shift 
Volunteering 
I visited art museums to learn about the history of SA South Africa 
I had to deal with a lot of people in your space all the time (some good and some bad) such as people 
trying to sell you things or beg for things, and people just wanting to talk to you because you are 
foreign, I am not really used to that in New Zealand 
Travel and Tourism 
I saw some terrible things whilst travelling around Travel and Tourism 
I did my sky dive, climbed mountains, hiked glaciers, did shark cage diving and much more..oh and 
had a snake wrapped round my neck...while I was away I very much had the attitude of feel the fear 
and do it anyway. 
Travel and Tourism 
At the children's home I was more active Volunteering 
While there I did a lot of crazy things that I never thought I would do ? skydiving, shark cage diving, 
crawling through caves, etc. 
Travel and Tourism 
Watching the animals, in solitude, in the wide open spaces allowed me to relax more Volunteering 
I got a blood clot in my leg whilst volunteering Volunteering 
I was volunteering with children Volunteering 
I did not want to miss out on experiences you can't do at home such as shark diving and sand 
boarding and experiencing different cultures 
Travel and Tourism 
At the Inkwenkwesi Conservation and Penguin Conservation Project I met wonderful people with 
whom I still keep in contact 
Volunteering 
There was so much to do and see and I didn't want to miss out. I also found myself more motivated 
doing the regular things I could do back home 
Travel and Tourism 
I met so many new lovely people who were in the same situation as me Volunteering 
I was thrown into a situation where you live and work with people you've never met before Volunteering 
I was constantly with people I didn't know and therefore had to trust them and go with the flow that 
I got used to trusting people and hoping for the best 
Volunteering 
While in SA I had a chance to go meet homeless people in Cape Town and bring them food South Africa 
Worked with animals that depend on you every day for their lives & worked with children who look 
up to you & rely on you each & everyday, they always had unconditional love.  They judge you for 
who you are in the inside & not what you have on the outside 
Volunteering 
Met situations that took me outside my comfort zone, for e.g. not being picked up when I was 
supposed to be 
Volunteering 
Making the trip on my own and meeting new people Travel and Tourism 
I arranged a lot of stuff myself during my trip and found solutions to problems Travel and Tourism 
I proved to myself what I am capable of; going to another country by yourself and to do something 
worthwhile 
Volunteering, Travel and 
Tourism 
Being placed in a different country for the first time on your own Travel and Tourism 
Travelling on your own to a new country Travel and Tourism 
I lived in a different country, with different people and a different language Volunteering, Travel and 
Tourism 
I went to another continent without having much contact with home and being far away for nearly 
two months 
Travel and Tourism 
We had to take charge and responsibility for the children Volunteering 
I was away from home, not around my family or any other significant responsibilities Travel and Tourism 
When I first arrived I was really scared to walk anywhere even during the day and with others, I 
always felt like I was going to be mugged or something 
Travel and Tourism 
This was my first time travelling by myself and going overseas so I was really scared.... making it 
through the airports and flights by myself 
Travel and Tourism 
I started planning and researching months and months ahead before deciding where to go, which 
organization I wanted to go with and what volunteer project to do 
Volunteering, Travel and 
Tourism 
I'm a social worker in a child protection team so having a break from that without the pressure for 6 
months was great 
Volunteering 
At the volunteer house there were a lot of volunteers who were on their own for the first time (and 
some older ones too) who weren?t doing their share around the house.....I was the one who would 
step up and talk to them about it 
Volunteering, Travel and 
Tourism 
Found goodness in people that I was beginning to think doesn't exist anymore Volunteering 
Could not get over how happy the children were although they had nothing material Volunteering 
204 
 
Saw people who had nothing which made me feel very humble Volunteering 
Encountered people living with HIV and AIDS who were also warm, kind and happy Volunteering 
Took the opportunity to try new things such as white water rafting Travel and Tourism 
I saw people and children who were much more vulnerable than me Volunteering 
Seeing how resilient the children were, they never whined or complained, just got on with things, it 
made me realise that I am quite a complainer myself.  I also saw the care workers who work so hard 
for so little money; it made me realise how cushy my life is. 
Volunteering 
Seeing poverty and seeing how little people have in Khayelitsha [at the children?s home] Volunteering 
The children I cared for suffered many disadvantages but they were generally very positive and dealt 
with things the best way they could 
Volunteering 
I have seen kids with not enough food, nothing to look forward to and no toys and they are still the 
happiest kids in the world! All they want is to be held 
Volunteering 
I opened my eyes to another country Volunteering, Travel and 
Tourism 
I saw the good people could do if they take time out for others Volunteering 
I saw other volunteers being able to do jobs that I thought only I could do properly Volunteering 
Being around the kids at the children's home was a definite help in getting over the issues I had {a 
huge personal trauma before I left}, seeing them so happy really rubs off, and when you see how 
little they had. 
Volunteering 
Took the opportunity for cultural immersion, such as eating traditional foods, and visiting traditional 
villages 
Volunteering, Travel and 
Tourism 
I lived in a different country, with different people and a different language Volunteering, Travel and 
Tourism 
They called us mama from the second we walked in. They made us feel so welcome, they needed so 
much love and care 
Volunteering 
We didn't feel like tourists and that was a great feeling Volunteering 
Met new people Volunteering, Travel and 
Tourism 
I felt I had to prove to the ladies who worked there that I didn't feel like a better person and that I 
just wanted to help and after some time we became good friends with them, and they became as 
fond of us as we of them 
Volunteering 
We got to know people from all over the world and we had so much fun Volunteering, Travel and 
Tourism 
Prior to my trip to SA I felt assured that I was in good hands and that I would be looked after during 
my time there. As it transpired, the volunteer house was absolutely filthy, over-crowded and 
extremely untidy and there were issues of burglary within the house. I was offered accommodation 
via a member of the Aviva staff which I gratefully accepted. This solution however was not without 
its own issues. The accommodation was out of town, I had to rely on the host to transport me to 
places. The host insisted on waiting for me therefore I had to return at a specific time. Therefore my 
leisure time was restricted 
Volunteering, Travel and 
Tourism 
I was very ill and people were astonishingly kind Volunteering, Travel and 
Tourism 
I couldn't get the kids to listen, so, my anxiety and feelings of being useless increased which 
exacerbated an underlying medical condition 
Volunteering with a medical 
condition 
 
 
  
205 
 
9. CHAPTER NINE ? discussion of the IPA findings 
 
 
Chapter nine embeds the IPA findings within the notion of experiential 
engagement in an attempt to explain transformation in the volunteers, and points 
to the limitations of this part of the study. Finally, there is synthesis of all three 
stages of the research and their contribution to knowledge. The concluding section 
discusses the validity and reliability of the study and includes some thoughts and 
pointers for further research, followed by a list of references, appendices and 
publications. 
 
9.1. Overview 
Although some of this study?s objectives were achieved by collecting quantitative 
data to examine the likelihood of change amongst 15 personality traits, other 
objectives required a different approach and hence the use of staged methods. 
The final two objectives are summarised below: 
1. Understanding the impact on people?s everyday lives at home.  
2. Identifying explanations for the reported changes.  
 
The interpretative phenomenological analysis of data from 36 interviews was used 
to understand the experiences of this study?s volunteers and the impacts on their 
daily lives. Using this technique, the study identified seven categories that 
described changes in the volunteer tourists, within two weeks of returning from 
their trip. These outcome categories: changes in ?behaviour?, ?personal 
circumstances?, ?emotions?, ?confidence?, ?values?, ?knowledge or skills? and 
?attitudes? all fit well with the volunteer tourism research discussed in the literature 
review (e.g. Bailey and Russell, 2010; Broad, 2003; Harlow and Pomfret, 2007; 
Laythorpe, 2009; McGehee and Santos, 2005; McIntosh and Zahra, 2007; 
Wearing, 2001; Wickens, 2011; Zahra, 2006, 2011; Zahra and McIntosh, 2007).  
 
Additionally, the study identified seven categories describing the experiences that 
the volunteers reported to have caused the changes: ?action?, ?involvement?, 
?responsibility?, ?participation?, ?immersion?, ?interaction? and 
?expectations/satisfaction levels?. In practice, an understanding of these 
experiential elements could assist programme developers in creating projects that 
206 
 
not only address community needs but also improve the chances of volunteer 
satisfaction and other desired outcomes (Ballantyne and Packer, 2011). Birdwell 
(2011) suggests that the best and most effective programmes focus on ensuring 
both these aspects. The volunteers in this study provide many examples of how 
each of these experiential elements can be achieved.  
 
Although some of these individual experiential categories are noted in the 
volunteer tourism literature, in chapter one, particularly interaction, this study 
consolidates these elements and uses the notion of ?experiential engagement? to 
describe a transformational volunteer tourism experience. This notion was used 
because many of these elements emerged from the grounded theory study (stage 
one) to describe the concept of engagement in volunteer tourism. Also, these 
elements were found in Alexander and Bakir?s (2011) conceptualisation of the 
volunteer tourism experience through the concepts of ?Relate-Dedicate-Donate?. 
 
9.2. Experiential Engagement  
Stage three of this study identified the elements that will most likely transform 
volunteers, and provided examples of how their day-to-day lives had changed. A 
transformational volunteer tourism experience is likely to entail a cocktail of 
experiences within experiential engagement (Ballantyne, Packer and Sutherland, 
2011; Daldeniz and Hampton, 2011; Sin, 2009; Tomazos and Butler, 2008). 
Evidence of these types of experiences is presented by this study?s volunteers in 
chapter eight:  
 
looking after oneself, others or a task (taking responsibility); observing 
whilst sharing in activities (participation); actually doing something 
(action); connecting or associating with others or a task (involvement); 
engrossing oneself and getting absorbed in the task (immersion); 
exchanging with other volunteers and the community (interaction); and 
getting what one hopes for (expectation/satisfaction).  
 
One particular element of experiential engagement, ?taking responsibility?, 
has been little studied but is receiving increased attention within the field of 
positive psychology (Snyder and Lopez, 2005).  
 
207 
 
The notion of ?taking responsibility? for oneself and for others, as in volunteering, 
which can be found in the work of Frankl (2004); Csikszentmihalyi (1997); Maslow 
(1993) and others, is important in contributing to personal growth. Mustonen 
(2006) and Brown (2005) use Maslow?s (1970) classic hierarchy of needs to 
explain people?s search for self-actualisation and personal growth through 
volunteer tourism. Maslow (1993) writes about the impulse we all have towards 
growth, or towards the actualisation of human potentialities and how the fear of 
responsibility thwarts this process (p. 38). He elaborates using the Jonah complex 
theory, ?So often we run away from the responsibilities dictated (or rather 
suggested) by nature, by fate, even sometimes by accident, just as Jonah tried ? 
in vain ? to run away from his fate? (p. 34). Maslow notes that to self-actualise (the 
need to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is 
capable of becoming) is ?to take responsibility?, for ?each time one takes 
responsibility, this is an actualising of the self? (p. 45). Similarly, Csikszentmihalyi 
(1997:132) acknowledges the importance of taking responsibility: ?An active 
responsibility for the rest of humankind, and for the world of which we are a part, is 
a necessary ingredient of a good life?. He suggests that a simple way of improving 
the quality of life is to take ownership of one?s actions. Frankl (2004) endorsed a 
very similar perspective. In this respect, it is an important factor contributing to 
personal growth. The volunteers in this study noted many occasions where they 
took responsibility and how in doing their lives changed as indicated by their 
responses in Table 34, for example, ?When I first arrived I was really scared to 
walk anywhere even during the day and with others........after a few weeks I was 
able to walk to work by myself? (increased confidence, volunteer 32).  
 
This study shows ?taking responsibility? as an important element of experiential 
engagement and the process that facilitates changes (in self). Harlow and Pomfret 
(2007) commented on the effects of being given very little responsibility and 
indicated how their volunteers? personal development could have been enhanced; 
whereas, Wearing?s (2001) volunteers recognised the importance of their 
responsibilities in their own personal development and learning (p. 127). Similarly, 
Ballantyne and Packer (2011) acknowledge the importance of responsibility in 
changing visitor behaviour towards the environment; they said that more attention 
needs to be given to individual actions (responsibilities). In this respect, Maddux 
(2005) suggests it [personal responsibility] also offers a replacement for the illness 
208 
 
ideology by helping people become more self-directed and self-organised. With 
regard to this component, and noting the impact that volunteer tourism has on the 
younger age group in this study, volunteer tourism may be thought of as a way of 
potentially reducing rates of re-offending and other self outcomes (see Moore and 
Allen, 1996; Paine et al., 2007). Further research is required in this area, 
particularly with regard to government policy initiatives relating to youth 
programmes (Mattero, 2008).  
 
9.3. Limitations of this stage of the study  
The limitations of this study were discussed in the methodology chapter and are 
summarised here. Although every effort was made to ensure the qualitative 
findings were accurate, truthful, and credible; inviting the informants to read and 
validate the analysis, and conducting the interview by email rather than face to 
face, interview reactivity can still cause bias in the interview responses, and so can 
the researcher?s interpretation/subjectivity in arriving at these findings.  
 
In order to discover why some traits were impacted more than others, it would 
have been useful to interview volunteers on all of their trait changes rather than 
just the areas of most change. Given the feed-back from the pilot study and the 
influence of time commitment on response rates, the researcher focussed only on 
the significant changes. 
 
Although credibility in staged methods research is an issue because of the 
difficulty of linking methods together (Creswell et al., 2003) and of inter-
 paradigmatic shifts, it must, nevertheless, be ultimately derived from the logic of 
the study?s methodological design ? the sample, appropriateness of the 
measurements used, and the adequacy of the control group. In this respect, as 
Mason (1996) suggests, the study spelt out the approach and decision trail about 
the theoretical, methodological and analytical choices made so that the reader can 
engage with the interpretation and look at how the findings were produced and 
how the processes affected what was produced.  
 
Although this study identified seven categories of experience responsible for 
transforming volunteers, it does not examine these to any great depth; it only 
provides examples of these experiences from the interviews with the volunteers. 
209 
 
The study could therefore be improved by, for example, examining the types of 
interaction, involvement, participation, action, immersion, responsibilities and 
expectations found from the volunteer tourism experience. Also, identifying sub-
 categories, would have been useful, such as, culture shock and the adjustments 
volunteers make to their lives abroad noted within the category ?immersion? 
(discussed in Laythorpe, 2009; Wickens, 2011). This would provide a more in-
 depth understanding of the experience. Also, process variables, such as 
motivation, were not examined in this study; these may be useful in predicting the 
influence of these experiences. Similarly, for the seven categories of impacts 
identified in this study, a more in-depth understanding of these may be useful to 
stakeholders; such as, knowing the types of skills and knowledge gained from 
volunteer tourism and the types of behaviour outcomes expected including re-
 assimilation into their home communities (see Machin, 2008).  
 
9.4. Interpretation and conclusion 
A synthesis of the grounded theory findings, statistical results and interpretative 
phenomenological analysis of interviews is presented in Figure 18. This figure 
shows the elements of experiential engagement in volunteer tourism: ?action?, 
?involvement/integration?, ?responsibility?, ?participation/penetration?, ?immersion?, 
?interaction? and ?expectations/satisfaction levels?; influenced by length of stay, 
age, gender, and project type. The personality inventory identified seven traits 
(anxiety, trust, artistic interest, depression, emotionality, activity level and 
adventurousness) that changed as a result of this engagement, and interviews 
with the volunteers revealed how these changes, presented in the form of 
categories (values, confidence, attitudes, personal circumstances, behaviour, 
emotions, knowledge and skills) manifested themselves in people?s everyday lives 
at home. Building on Alexander and Bakir?s (2011) notion of Engagement Theory, 
engagement in volunteer tourism emerges as a process that starts with 
experiential engagement and ends with specific changes in participants? day-to-
 day lives.  
 
 
  
210 
 
 
Responsibility
 Participation
 /penetration
 Immersion
 Involvement
 /integration
 Action Interaction
 IMPACT/CHANGE
 Decreased
 anxiety
 Increased
 artistic interest
 Decreased
 depression
 Increased
 emotionality
 Attitudes
 Personal
 circ.
 Values EmotionsBehaviourConfidence
 Knowledge
 or skills
 Expectations/
 Satisfaction
 levels
 Increased
 adventureIncreased  trust
 Increased
 activity level
 Age
 Project type
 Length of stay
 Gender
 EXPERIENTIAL ENGAGEMENT
  
 
Figure 18. A diagrammatic representation of Engagement Theory. 
  
211 
 
 
Notwithstanding the limitations of this staged methods study, its findings as 
identified earlier, nevertheless, make some significant contributions to knowledge 
and add to the volunteer tourism literature. Glaser?s grounded theory, the first 
method used in this study, offers a new explanation for volunteer tourism ? the 
engagement in volunteer work as a tourist. At the same time, it allowed the 
deconstruction of constituent elements (engagement, volunteer work and tourist) 
and, combined, differentiates volunteer tourism from other forms of tourism and its 
allied notions such as cultural tourism, ecotourism, and other notions highlighted in 
chapter one. Engagement emerged as the core category within which sub-
 categories emerged (interaction, involvement/integration, participation/penetration, 
action, immersion, responsibility and expectations/satisfaction), expanding on 
Alexander and Bakir?s (2011) Engagement Theory of ?Relate-Dedicate-Donate,? to 
explain transformation in volunteers? daily lives at home: 
 
?Relate? describes volunteer tourists interacting and getting involved 
(integrating) with other volunteers and the communities. Volunteer 
tourists ?donate? to an outside customer, the community where the 
project is located, by doing something (action) and getting absorbed in 
the tasks at hand (immersion), and volunteer tourists ?dedicate? 
themselves by participating in purposeful work where they expect to 
apply their knowledge and skills to existing worthwhile projects; 
additionally taking responsibility for oneself, others or a task.  
 
Additionally, the second method (the personality inventory) provides a new 
dimension to the outcomes of volunteer tourism identified in the literature review; it 
focuses on personality traits and identifies the likelihood of these changing as a 
result of a volunteering trip; thus adding to our body of knowledge on volunteer 
tourism. It contributes to the call for developing more evidence to establish the 
effectiveness of volunteer programmes, particularly government programmes 
because there is a lack of rigorous, publicly available and easily accessible 
research on these service programmes, especially on youth projects outside of 
North America and Europe (Mattero, 2008). Birdwell (2011) and Harlow and 
Pomfret (2007) add that projects should be developed to achieve and measure 
personal development outcomes for volunteers. In South Africa, Benson and 
212 
 
Seibert (2009) and Stoddart and Rogerson (2004) note that the literature 
associated with volunteer tourism?s outcomes is limited, most provide rich 
subjective data of impacts with very few studies providing statistical evidence. In 
this study, some traits are highly likely (greater than 95%) to change, such as, 
anxiety (decreased), trust (increased), artistic interests (increased), depression 
(decreased), emotionality (increased), activity levels (increased) and 
adventurousness (increased); whilst other traits are not, such as, self-efficacy, 
altruism, dutifulness, intellect, liberalism and cautiousness. Also the use of a 
matched control group, living their day-to-day lives enhanced the validity of this 
study as part of the scientific method. 
 
This study points to changes in some traits that are new to the volunteer tourism 
literature, they are, changes in ?anxiety?, ?depression? and ?activity?. Also whilst 
identifying some similarities to other studies, such as, changes (increases) in 
emotionality, trust, artistic interest and adventurousness (see Bailey and Russell, 
2010, who studied these traits under the umbrella of ?openness to experience?), 
the findings of this study also point to some significant contrasts. In contrast to 
Wearing (2001), Lough et al. (2009b) and Bailey and Russell (2010), this study 
showed no significant increases in altruism. Also, the findings differ from McGehee 
and Santos (2005), Zahra (2011) and Zahra and McIntosh (2007) as they reported 
increases in self-efficacy in their studies. Similarly, Broad (2003), Harlow and 
Pomfret (2007) and Wearing (2001) reported changes in liberalism; whereas this 
study did not. Lastly, Zahra and McIntosh (2007) reported an increased sense of 
duty amongst their volunteers; whereas this study did not. None of these studies 
determined the statistical probabilities of change in these areas and this may 
account for these different findings, as this study found that, although these traits 
may change, the statistical probabilities of them doing so are below the recognised 
percentage of 95%. 
 
Furthermore, by investigating the influence of other variables on these traits, such 
as age, gender, project type, length of stay and time elapsed post-trip; some gaps 
in the volunteer tourism literature were filled as the research in these areas tends 
to be limited and somewhat contradictory (Machin, 2008). This study discovered 
that all of these variables have an effect on the 15 traits measured. The 
volunteering experience is more likely to change the 16-29 years of age than the 
213 
 
30+ years. Some traits are significantly more likely to change amongst the men 
(trust and dutifulness) and others amongst the women (adventurousness, 
assertiveness, activity and anxiety). Similarly, there are different outcomes 
depending on the type of volunteer project volunteers participate in; wildlife 
volunteers are significantly more likely to change for trust, assertiveness and 
emotionality, whereas the depression trait is more likely to change amongst 
community volunteers. Also, the length of stay influenced the likelihood of change; 
there are more potential benefits to those volunteers staying 5 to 12 weeks rather 
than the shorter or longer periods of time. Therefore, those benefitting most from 
volunteer tourism tend to be a certain type: female, aged between 16 and 29, 
engaged in wildlife projects of between 5 and 12 weeks in duration. The results of 
this study also counter the argument presented by Ewert and Sibthorp (2009) that 
there are often strong initial gains from such experiences but these decline over 
time; the measured outcomes of this study were still present one to two years 
later; with no significant differences between the post-trip and follow-up scores. 
 
The staged methods design approach of this study proved useful as it allowed us 
to gain a broader understanding of the impact of volunteer tourism on the 
volunteer, and build on Alexander and Bakir?s (2011) notion of Engagement 
Theory in volunteer tourism. The engagement in volunteer tourism as a tourist 
emerges as a process that starts with experiential engagement through volunteers? 
?action?, ?involvement?, ?responsibility?, ?participation?, ?immersion?, ?interaction? and 
?expectations/satisfaction levels?; and ends with specific changes in participants? 
day-to-day lives, categorised as changes in people?s ?personal circumstances?, 
?behaviour?, emotions?, ?confidence?, ?values?, ?knowledge or skills? and ?attitudes?. 
This knowledge provides a greater understanding of engagement as it identifies 
the elements that will most likely transform volunteers in the mentioned ways. One 
particular element, ?taking responsibility?, emerged as a new and important 
transformational factor in experiential engagement.  
 
Such a staged methods approach, used to gain a broader understanding of the 
substantive area, is novel in volunteer tourism research; its adoption in this study 
thus also provides a contribution to the field?s methodology. 
 
214 
 
The evidence presented in this study shows that volunteer tourism represents a 
proactive catalyst for altering our perspectives and subsequently our actions. In 
this respect, it offers a potential contribution to positive psychology. Additionally, it 
answers the call to use a diversity of methods (Ong and Van Dulmen, 2007), and 
offers a context in which to study these traits further. 
 
The validity and reliability of this study?s findings 
The validity and reliability of this study?s findings were discussed comprehensively 
in the methodology chapter. A number of techniques were used to enhance 
validity such as respondents validating the results of the personality inventory; 
presenting verbatim extracts of the participants? accounts; carrying out an a priori 
power analysis on the sample size to determine statistical validity; carrying out the 
grounded theory part of this study to arrive at an explanation for volunteer tourism 
before determining its impact on the participant; using a standardised personality 
inventory; and using a control group to rule out some extraneous variables that 
may account for the findings in conjunction with interviews with the volunteers.  
 
A number of techniques were also used to enhance this study?s reliability such as 
being transparent in the interpretation of the participants? accounts within the 
findings; verifying the test-retest reliability of the shortened version of the IPIP-
 NEO personality inventory by testing for similar scores over two points in time; 
and using a staged methods approach for data collection. 
 
Furthermore, as IPA operates within a different discourse to the personality 
inventory, it requires different strategies for evaluation. Every effort was made to 
ensure the findings were accurate, truthful, and credible; inviting the informants to 
read and validate the analysis, and conducting the interview by email rather than 
face to face. However, interview reactivity can still cause bias in the responses, 
and so can the researcher?s interpretation/subjectivity in arriving at the findings.  
 
Thoughts and pointers for further research 
During the course of this study, a number of areas were highlighted for further 
research; a more extensive understanding, of the impact of volunteer tourism, 
could be gained by measuring all thirty sub-traits that make up Costa and 
215 
 
McCrae?s (1992) Five-Factor Model of personality, not just the fifteen traits 
measured for this study.  
 
It is possible that there are greater differences between the gender types than 
currently thought (Harasty et al., 1997); an area that could benefit from further 
research especially in relation to targeting specific markets for specific beneficial 
impacts. Also, little research has been done on the influence of project type on the 
volunteer tourism experience so this is another area that may benefit from further 
research, particularly if different projects could provide different beneficial impacts. 
 
It appears from the results of this study, that those benefitting most from volunteer 
tourism tend to be female, aged between 16 and 29, engaged in wildlife projects of 
between 5 and 12 weeks in duration (Type 1: maximum impact). Whereas those 
benefiting the least, tend to be male, 30+ years in age, and engaged in community 
projects for less than 5 weeks or greater than 12 weeks (Type 2: minimum 
impact). This study offers a platform for further research on the types of volunteers 
that will benefit the most (or least) from volunteer tourism. 
 
In this study there were other important variables that were not investigated, such 
as, destination country, respondents? culture, the country of origin of the 
volunteers, motivation for participation, type of provider/volunteer organisation, 
travel and volunteer experience of the volunteers. All these moderating variables 
are important in understanding the potential causes and consequences of change 
amongst the volunteers (Lee and Woosnam, 2010; McGehee et al., 2009; Schott, 
2011); they provide many opportunities for further research on the topic; 
particularly in predicting which traits will change. Furthermore, these variables may 
identify other transformative potentials that will build on engagement in volunteer 
tourism.  
 
Lastly, it was noted that a more comprehensive longitudinal study, involving more 
volunteers completing the follow-up test one to two years later, is required to 
clarify whether the changes identified are temporary or more permanent in nature. 
  
Considering the limitations of this study and noting the benefits of further research 
in particular areas, this study has shown that experiential engagement in volunteer 
216 
 
tourism is responsible for effecting change in some personality traits amongst 
participating volunteers. 
  
217 
 
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245 
 
APPENDICES 
246 
 
Appendix 1: The definitions of the thirty traits 
 
For the IPIP-NEO personality inventory, John A. Johnson wrote descriptions of the five 
domains and thirty sub domains. These descriptions are based on an extensive reading of 
the scientific literature on personality measurement. Although Dr. Johnson would like to be 
acknowledged as the author of these materials if they are reproduced, he has placed them 
in the public domain.  
Extraversion 
Extraversion is marked by pronounced engagement with the external world. Extraverts 
enjoy being with people, are full of energy, and often experience positive emotions. They 
tend to be enthusiastic, action-oriented, individuals who are likely to say "Yes!" or "Let's 
go!" to opportunities for excitement. In groups they like to talk, assert themselves, and 
draw attention to themselves.  
Introverts lack the exuberance, energy, and activity levels of extraverts. They tend to be 
quiet, low-key, deliberate, and disengaged from the social world. Their lack of social 
involvement should not be interpreted as shyness or depression; the introvert simply needs 
less stimulation than an extravert and prefers to be alone. The independence and reserve of 
the introvert is sometimes mistaken as unfriendliness or arrogance. In reality, an introvert 
who scores high on the agreeableness dimension will not seek others out but will be quite 
pleasant when approached.  
Extraversion Facets 
Friendliness. Friendly people genuinely like other people and openly demonstrate positive 
feelings toward others. They make friends quickly and it is easy for them to form close, 
intimate relationships. Low scorers on Friendliness are not necessarily cold and hostile, but 
they do not reach out to others and are perceived as distant and reserved.  
Gregariousness. Gregarious people find the company of others pleasantly stimulating and 
rewarding. They enjoy the excitement of crowds. Low scorers tend to feel overwhelmed 
by, and therefore actively avoid, large crowds. They do not necessarily dislike being with 
people sometimes, but their need for privacy and time to themselves is much greater than 
for individuals who score high on this scale.  
Assertiveness. High scorers Assertiveness like to speak out, take charge, and direct the 
activities of others. They tend to be leaders in groups. Low scorers tend not to talk much 
and let others control the activities of groups.  
Activity Level. Active individuals lead fast-paced, busy lives. They move about quickly, 
energetically, and vigorously, and they are involved in many activities. People who score 
low on this scale follow a slower and more leisurely, relaxed pace.  
Excitement-Seeking. High scorers on this scale are easily bored without high levels of 
stimulation. They love bright lights and hustle and bustle. They are likely to take risks and 
seek thrills. Low scorers are overwhelmed by noise and commotion and are adverse to 
thrill-seeking.  
247 
 
Cheerfulness. This scale measures positive mood and feelings, not negative emotions 
(which are a part of the Neuroticism domain). Persons who score high on this scale 
typically experience a range of positive feelings, including happiness, enthusiasm, 
optimism, and joy. Low scorers are not as prone to such energetic, high spirits.  
Agreeableness 
Agreeableness reflects individual differences in concern with cooperation and social 
harmony. Agreeable individual?s value getting along with others. They are therefore 
considerate, friendly, generous, helpful, and willing to compromise their interests with 
others'. Agreeable people also have an optimistic view of human nature. They believe 
people are basically honest, decent, and trustworthy.  
Disagreeable individuals place self-interest above getting along with others. They are 
generally unconcerned with others' well-being, and therefore are unlikely to extend 
themselves for other people. Sometimes their scepticism about others' motives causes them 
to be suspicious, unfriendly, and uncooperative.  
Agreeableness is obviously advantageous for attaining and maintaining popularity. 
Agreeable people are better liked than disagreeable people. On the other hand, 
agreeableness is not useful in situations that require tough or absolute objective decisions. 
Disagreeable people can make excellent scientists, critics, or soldiers.  
Agreeableness Facets 
Trust. A person with high trust assumes that most people are fair, honest, and have good 
intentions. Persons low in trust see others as selfish, devious, and potentially dangerous.  
Morality. High scorers on this scale see no need for pretence or manipulation when dealing 
with others and are therefore candid, frank, and sincere. Low scorers believe that a certain 
amount of deception in social relationships is necessary. People find it relatively easy to 
relate to the straightforward high-scorers on this scale. They generally find it more difficult 
to relate to the unstraightforward low-scorers on this scale. It should be made clear that low 
scorers are not unprincipled or immoral; they are simply more guarded and less willing to 
openly reveal the whole truth.  
Altruism. Altruistic people find helping other people genuinely rewarding. Consequently, 
they are generally willing to assist those who are in need. Altruistic people find that doing 
things for others is a form of self-fulfilment rather than self-sacrifice. Low scorers on this 
scale do not particularly like helping those in need. Requests for help feel like an 
imposition rather than an opportunity for self-fulfilment.  
Cooperation. Individuals who score high on this scale dislike confrontations. They are 
perfectly willing to compromise or to deny their own needs in order to get along with 
others. Those who score low on this scale are more likely to intimidate others to get their 
way.  
Modesty. High scorers on this scale do not like to claim that they are better than other 
people. In some cases this attitude may derive from low self-confidence or self-esteem. 
Nonetheless, some people with high self-esteem find immodesty unseemly. Those who are 
willing to describe themselves as superior tend to be seen as disagreeably arrogant by other 
people.  
248 
 
Sympathy. People who score high on this scale are tender-hearted and compassionate. They 
feel the pain of others vicariously and are easily moved to pity. Low scorers are not 
affected strongly by human suffering. They pride themselves on making objective 
judgments based on reason. They are more concerned with truth and impartial justice than 
with mercy.  
Conscientiousness 
Conscientiousness concerns the way in which we control, regulate, and direct our 
impulses. Impulses are not inherently bad; occasionally time constraints require a snap 
decision, and acting on our first impulse can be an effective response. Also, in times of 
play rather than work, acting spontaneously and impulsively can be fun. Impulsive 
individuals can be seen by others as colourful, fun-to-be-with, and zany.  
Nonetheless, acting on impulse can lead to trouble in a number of ways. Some impulses 
are antisocial. Uncontrolled antisocial acts not only harm other members of society, but 
also can result in retribution toward the perpetrator of such impulsive acts. Another 
problem with impulsive acts is that they often produce immediate rewards but undesirable, 
long-term consequences. Examples include excessive socializing that leads to being fired 
from one's job, hurling an insult that causes the breakup of an important relationship, or 
using pleasure-inducing drugs that eventually destroy one's health.  
Impulsive behaviour, even when not seriously destructive, diminishes a person's 
effectiveness in significant ways. Acting impulsively disallows contemplating alternative 
courses of action, some of which would have been wiser than the impulsive choice. 
Impulsivity also sidetracks people during projects that require organized sequences of steps 
or stages. Accomplishments of an impulsive person are therefore small, scattered, and 
inconsistent.  
A hallmark of intelligence, what potentially separates human beings from earlier life 
forms, is the ability to think about future consequences before acting on an impulse. 
Intelligent activity involves contemplation of long-range goals, organizing and planning 
routes to these goals, and persisting toward one's goals in the face of short-lived impulses 
to the contrary. The idea that intelligence involves impulse control is nicely captured by 
the term prudence, an alternative label for the Conscientiousness domain. Prudent means 
both wise and cautious. Persons who score high on the Conscientiousness scale are, in fact, 
perceived by others as intelligent.  
The benefits of high conscientiousness are obvious. Conscientious individuals avoid 
trouble and achieve high levels of success through purposeful planning and persistence. 
They are also positively regarded by others as intelligent and reliable. On the negative side, 
they can be compulsive perfectionists and workaholics. Furthermore, extremely 
conscientious individuals might be regarded as stuffy and boring. Unconscientious people 
may be criticized for their unreliability, lack of ambition, and failure to stay within the 
lines, but they will experience many short-lived pleasures and they will never be called 
stuffy.  
Conscientiousness Facets 
Self-Efficacy. Self-Efficacy describes confidence in one's ability to accomplish things. 
High scorers believe they have the intelligence (common sense), drive, and self-control 
249 
 
necessary for achieving success. Low scorers do not feel effective, and may have a sense 
that they are not in control of their lives. 
Orderliness. Persons with high scores on orderliness are well-organized. They like to live 
according to routines and schedules. They keep lists and make plans. Low scorers tend to 
be disorganized and scattered.  
Dutifulness. This scale reflects the strength of a person's sense of duty and obligation. 
Those who score high on this scale have a strong sense of moral obligation. Low scorers 
find contracts, rules, and regulations overly confining. They are likely to be seen as 
unreliable or even irresponsible.  
Achievement-Striving. Individuals who score high on this scale strive hard to achieve 
excellence. Their drive to be recognized as successful keeps them on track toward their 
lofty goals. They often have a strong sense of direction in life, but extremely high scores 
may be too single-minded and obsessed with their work. Low scorers are content to get by 
with a minimal amount of work, and might be seen by others as lazy. Your level of 
achievement striving is high.  
Self-Discipline. Self-discipline-what many people call will-power-refers to the ability to 
persist at difficult or unpleasant tasks until they are completed. People who possess high 
self-discipline are able to overcome reluctance to begin tasks and stay on track despite 
distractions. Those with low self-discipline procrastinate and show poor follow-through, 
often failing to complete tasks-even tasks they want very much to complete.  
Cautiousness. Cautiousness describes the disposition to think through possibilities before 
acting. High scorers on the Cautiousness scale take their time when making decisions. Low 
scorers often say or do first thing that comes to mind without deliberating alternatives and 
the probable consequences of those alternatives.  
Neuroticism 
Freud originally used the term neurosis to describe a condition marked by mental distress, 
emotional suffering, and an inability to cope effectively with the normal demands of life. 
He suggested that everyone shows some signs of neurosis, but that we differ in our degree 
of suffering and our specific symptoms of distress. Today neuroticism refers to the 
tendency to experience negative feelings. Those who score high on Neuroticism may 
experience primarily one specific negative feeling such as anxiety, anger, or depression, 
but are likely to experience several of these emotions. People high in neuroticism are 
emotionally reactive. They respond emotionally to events that would not affect most 
people, and their reactions tend to be more intense than normal. They are more likely to 
interpret ordinary situations as threatening, and minor frustrations as hopelessly difficult. 
Their negative emotional reactions tend to persist for unusually long periods of time, which 
means they are often in a bad mood. These problems in emotional regulation can diminish 
a neurotic's ability to think clearly, make decisions, and cope effectively with stress.  
At the other end of the scale, individuals who score low in neuroticism are less easily upset 
and are less emotionally reactive. They tend to be calm, emotionally stable, and free from 
persistent negative feelings. Freedom from negative feelings does not mean that low 
scorers experience a lot of positive feelings; frequency of positive emotions is a component 
of the Extraversion domain.  
250 
 
Neuroticism Facets 
Anxiety. The "fight-or-flight" system of the brain of anxious individuals is too easily and 
too often engaged. Therefore, people who are high in anxiety often feel like something 
dangerous is about to happen. They may be afraid of specific situations or be just generally 
fearful. They feel tense, jittery, and nervous. Persons low in Anxiety are generally calm 
and fearless.  
Anger. Persons who score high in Anger feel enraged when things do not go their way. 
They are sensitive about being treated fairly and feel resentful and bitter when they feel 
they are being cheated. This scale measures the tendency to feel angry; whether or not the 
person expresses annoyance and hostility depends on the individual's level on 
Agreeableness. Low scorers do not get angry often or easily.  
Depression. This scale measures the tendency to feel sad, dejected, and discouraged. High 
scorers lack energy and have difficult initiating activities. Low scorers tend to be free from 
these depressive feelings.  
Self-Consciousness. Self-conscious individuals are sensitive about what others think of 
them. Their concern about rejection and ridicule cause them to feel shy and uncomfortable 
abound others. They are easily embarrassed and often feel ashamed. Their fears that others 
will criticize or make fun of them are exaggerated and unrealistic, but their awkwardness 
and discomfort may make these fears a self-fulfilling prophecy. Low scorers, in contrast, 
do not suffer from the mistaken impression that everyone is watching and judging them. 
They do not feel nervous in social situations.  
Immoderation. Immoderate individuals feel strong cravings and urges that they have 
difficulty resisting. They tend to be oriented toward short-term pleasures and rewards 
rather than long- term consequences. Low scorers do not experience strong, irresistible 
cravings and consequently do not find themselves tempted to overindulge.  
Vulnerability. High scorers on Vulnerability experience panic, confusion, and helplessness 
when under pressure or stress. Low scorers feel more poised, confident, and clear-thinking 
when stressed.  
Openness to Experience 
Openness to Experience describes a dimension of cognitive style that distinguishes 
imaginative, creative people from down-to-earth, conventional people. Open people are 
intellectually curious, appreciative of art, and sensitive to beauty. They tend to be, 
compared to closed people, more aware of their feelings. They tend to think and act in 
individualistic and nonconforming ways. Intellectuals typically score high on Openness to 
Experience; consequently, this factor has also been called Culture or Intellect. Nonetheless, 
Intellect is probably best regarded as one aspect of openness to experience. Scores on 
Openness to Experience are only modestly related to years of education and scores on 
standard intelligent tests.  
Another characteristic of the open cognitive style is a facility for thinking in symbols and 
abstractions far removed from concrete experience. Depending on the individual's specific 
intellectual abilities, this symbolic cognition may take the form of mathematical, logical, or 
geometric thinking, artistic and metaphorical use of language, music composition or 
performance, or one of the many visual or performing arts. People with low scores on 
251 
 
openness to experience tend to have narrow, common interests. They prefer the plain, 
straightforward, and obvious over the complex, ambiguous, and subtle. They may regard 
the arts and sciences with suspicion, regarding these endeavours as abstruse or of no 
practical use. Closed people prefer familiarity over novelty; they are conservative and 
resistant to change.  
Openness is often presented as healthier or more mature by psychologists, who are often 
themselves open to experience. However, open and closed styles of thinking are useful in 
different environments. The intellectual style of the open person may serve a professor 
well, but research has shown that closed thinking is related to superior job performance in 
police work, sales, and a number of service occupations.  
Openness Facets 
Imagination. To imaginative individuals, the real world is often too plain and ordinary. 
High scorers on this scale use fantasy as a way of creating a richer, more interesting world. 
Low scorers are on this scale are more oriented to facts than fantasy.  
Artistic Interests. High scorers on this scale love beauty, both in art and in nature. They 
become easily involved and absorbed in artistic and natural events. They are neither 
necessarily artistically trained nor talented, although many will be. The defining features of 
this scale are interest in, and appreciation of natural and artificial beauty. Low scorers lack 
aesthetic sensitivity and interest in the arts.  
Emotionality. Persons high on Emotionality have good access to and awareness of their 
own feelings. Low scorers are less aware of their feelings and tend not to express their 
emotions openly.  
Adventurousness. High scorers on adventurousness are eager to try new activities, travel to 
foreign lands, and experience different things. They find familiarity and routine boring, 
and will take a new route home just because it is different. Low scorers tend to feel 
uncomfortable with change and prefer familiar routines.  
Intellect. Intellect and artistic interests are the two most important, central aspects of 
openness to experience. High scorers on Intellect love to play with ideas. They are open-
 minded to new and unusual ideas, and like to debate intellectual issues. They enjoy riddles, 
puzzles, and brain teasers. Low scorers on Intellect prefer dealing with people or things 
rather than ideas. They regard intellectual exercises as a waste of time. Intellect should not 
be equated with intelligence. Intellect is an intellectual style, not an intellectual ability, 
although high scorers on Intellect score slightly higher than low-Intellect individuals on 
standardized intelligence tests.  
Liberalism. Psychological liberalism refers to a readiness to challenge authority, 
convention, and traditional values. In its most extreme form, psychological liberalism can 
even represent outright hostility toward rules, sympathy for law-breakers, and love of 
ambiguity, chaos, and disorder. Psychological conservatives prefer the security and 
stability brought by conformity to tradition. Psychological liberalism and conservatism are 
not identical to political affiliation, but certainly incline individuals toward certain political 
parties.   
 
Source: The IPIP Web site at http://ipip.ori.org, Accessed 13th June 2008 
252 
 
Appendix 2: The Personality Inventory: www.bucksresearch.org.uk 
 
 
 
253 
 
 
254 
 
 
255 
 
Appendix 3: An a Priori Power Analysis 
 
 
Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed ranks tests - ideal sample size required for power 0.80 and 
0.95 
 
 
 
256 
 
Mann-Whitney U-tests - ideal sample size required for power 0.80 
 
[2] -- Thursday, March 03, 2011 -- 15:28:47 
t tests - Means: Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test (two groups) 
Options: A.R.E. method 
Analysis: A priori: Compute required sample size  
Input: Tail(s) = Two 
 Parent distribution = Normal 
 Effect size d = 0.5 [0.6]19 
 ? err prob = 0.05 
 Power (1-? err prob) = 0.8 
 Allocation ratio N2/N1 = 1 
Output: Noncentrality parameter ? = 2.8279915 
 Critical t = 1.9789766 
 Df = 125.9606 
 Sample size group 1 = 67 [60]20 
 Sample size group 2 = 67 [35]21 
 Total sample size = 134 
 Actual power = 0.8013372 
 
 
 
                                                 
19 A smaller sample (see below) reduces the sensitivity of the test from effect 0.5 to 0.6. 
20 The effect changes if you reduce the volunteer group size from 67 to 60. 
21 The effect changes if you reduce the control group size from 67 to 35. 
257 
 
Appendix 4: The Home Page for www.bucksresearch.org.uk 
 
 
 
258 
 
Appendix 5: The Guide Page for www.bucksresearch.org.uk 
 
 
 
259 
 
Appendix 6: The Questionnaire Page for www.bucksresearch.org.uk 
 
 
 
260 
 
Appendix 7: The text (in bold) appearing on the Aviva booking link 
 
 
 
--- On Tue, 29/7/08, Ed Scott <ed@aviva-sa.com> wrote: 
From: Ed Scott <ed@aviva-sa.com> 
Subject: RE: Two requests please: 1. To be a Control Group Member 2. To put the web-
 link on 
To: zaalexander@yahoo.co.uk 
Date: Tuesday, 29 July, 2008, 7:48 AM 
Hi Zoe, 
I will be very happy to add your survey link to our confirmation email. It might be best if we 
include an introduction by way of invitation (and to arouse their interest), something along the 
lines of...    
Would you like to find out more about yourself, and how your volunteering experience could 
change and develop you as a person? If so, you may be interested to know that PhD student, 
Zo? Alexander, is investigating the impact of international volunteering on ?the self?, and she 
would love to hear from you before and after your volunteering experience.    
It has long been suspected that volunteering has a positive impact on a person?s self-
 development, and this has been borne out both by the changes we have seen in volunteers 
during their stay with us, and by the actions they have taken on their return home. Zoe?s study 
is the first of its kind to look at this specific area of volunteering scientifically, and as the 
majority of volunteers rarely think about how they will benefit when they book a project, this 
should prove to be an enlightening experience for everyone involved!  
If you would like to take part in this ground breaking study, please visit Zoe?s website at 
www.bucksresearch.org.uk to submit a short confidential survey before and after your trip.  
The web site includes clear instructions on completing your first survey, and as a thank you, Zoe 
can send you a summary of your personality traits within 3 working days. You will also find 
contact details for Zoe and she will be very happy to answer any questions you may have about 
her research.  
Please let me know if you would like to change this, and once you?re happy, we will start to 
include this in our emails. I can also add an entry to our Facebook page for this.   
All the best Ed  Ed Scott Aviva Co-director  
261 
 
Appendix 8: The email template request for control group members 
 
 
 
Re: Request to be a Control Group Member 
Tuesday, 12 August, 2008 9:10 AM 
From: "Alexander" <zaalexander@yahoo.co.uk> 
To:  
 
Dear XXX, 
  
Thank you for agreeing to participate, as a Control Group Member, in a research project 
investigating the impact of voluntourism (international volunteering) on "the self".  The 
purpose of the Control Group is to determine whether the impact of international volunteer 
work on "the self" is due to the volunteer experience rather than life events generally.   
  
Please would you take 10 minutes (max.) to link to www.bucksresearch.org.uk and 
answer/submit the short questionnaire about your-self and answer/submit the personality 
inventory (click 'before').   
Because you are a Control Group Member, some questions about yourself will be 
irrelevant so please just place a 'NA' alongside them.  They are:   
When is your estimated return date? 
What do you think you will do on the project? 
What do you want to do with your spare time....? 
Why are you participating in this type of hols? 
 
Please do, however, give me your perception of what international volunteering is, in the 
relevant box, even if you haven't done any international volunteering. 
  
Within 3 working days, you will receive some interesting information about your 
personality traits which I will, in six months time, compare to a second personality 
inventory and feed-back to you.   
  
Many thanks for your support 
Kind regards 
Zoe 
 
262 
 
Appendix 9: An example of a submitted questionnaire and PI 
 
 
Re: Submitted form contents from your website - Questionnaire 
Thursday, 15 January, 2009 8:03 AM 
From:  
"root@bucksresearch.org.uk" <root@bucksresearch.org.uk> 
Add sender to Contacts  
To:  
zaalexander@yahoo.co.uk 
Input from submitted form: 
 
Address = pittiramu@gmail.com 
Gender = M 
Age = 16-29 
Occupation = Bush Regenerator 
Country = Australia 
Return_date = Early June 2009 
Activities = Learn about animals, the bush, the environment, and gain skills. 
Aditional_activities = Do some touristy things, meet the local people, immerse myself in 
the culture and feel of the place. 
Volunteering = It is a good way to make money to fund projects as well as allowing people 
to experience different countries and cultures as well gaining something for themselves. 
Reasons_for_participation = To further my career, to have an adventure, and to learn and 
see new things. 
Submit = Submit 
 
 
Additional (client) information: 
 
Date = 2009-01-15 08:03 
Browser = HTTP_USER_AGENT 
IP Address = 60.240.53.63 
Hostname = 60-240-53-63.tpgi.com.au 
263 
 
Re: Submitted form contents from your website ? Personality Inventory 
Monday, 19 January, 2009 9:17 AM 
From:  
"root@bucksresearch.org.uk" <root@bucksresearch.org.uk> 
Add sender to Contacts  
To:  
zaalexander@yahoo.co.uk 
Input from submitted form: 
 
e-mail_address = XXXXXXXX 
1 = e 
2 = d 
3 = e 
4 = c 
5 = a 
6 = e 
7 = e 
8 = b 
9 = e 
10 = e 
11 = d 
12 = d 
13 = d 
14 = c 
15 = d 
16 = d 
17 = d 
18 = d 
19 = c 
20 = a 
21 = e 
22 = e 
23 = c 
24 = d 
25 = e 
26 = d 
27 = a 
28 = d 
29 = e 
30 = d 
31 = b 
32 = d 
33 = d 
34 = e 
35 = a 
36 = e 
37 = c 
38 = c 
39 = a 
40 = e 
41 = b 
264 
 
42 = b 
43 = a 
44 = c 
45 = e 
46 = d 
47 = b 
48 = d 
49 = b 
50 = e 
51 = a 
52 = c 
53 = c 
54 = a 
55 = b 
56 = b 
57 = b 
58 = c 
59 = e 
60 = d 
Submit = Submit 
 
 
Additional (client) information: 
 
Date = 2009-01-19 09:17 
Browser = HTTP_USER_AGENT 
IP Address = 86.141.189.87 
Hostname = host86-141-189-87.range86-141.btcentralplus.com 
265 
 
Appendix 10: An example of a volunteer tourist testimonial 
 
KELLY   
Age  31 
Nationality  British 
Resident  London, England 
Project  Amapondo 
 
 
 
Volunteering has become ?the thing to do after years of routine in the same job?, to A: give yourself a break 
and B: do some good in the world that does not necessarily benefit you directly.  
At Amapondo in Port t Johns the idea has become more of a philosophy ? a practiced way of life. And the 
fulfillment you get when you ?pondify? yourself is one of immense satisfaction.  
Port St Johns is on the East coast of South Africa, a small town buzzing with energy and wildlife, a very real 
slab of Africa, (but with hot showers and very tasty food!) It is here that a group of people; a mix of black 
Xhosa natives, white Afrikaans natives, a couple of English, two Canadian and one Dutch representative, all 
got together and formed a family. As this community grew, so the idea to make some realistic, practical and 
wholesome changes came about. Africa does not need saving. It does not need the western way of doing 
things thrust upon it. This is not the only way. And you begin to learn and understand this only by living and 
breathing amongst it, by volunteering.  
Amapondo?s vision is to ensure empowerment, ownership and sustainability of a land and people through a 
series of projects and programmes. Their philosophy is not to try and impose western strategies and 
infrastructure, but to embrace and retain African culture and tradition every step of the way. By doing this, 
African people are not changing WHO they are, they are changing the way they do certain things in order to 
enhance, progress and develop their existing lives. So far, Amapondo and the team are on their way to 
opening a school based on interactive, all inclusive Waldorf principles of teaching and a small shop that will 
sell crafts, jams and goods made by their growing community. All profits will go towards the cost of running 
the school. An ambitious project using permaculture as its basis, (using land to create food, water and shelter) 
is also in the making, at Mama Pats, 45 minutes along a very bumpy dirt track on the back of an open top 4x4 
up to a small village with no electricity, little sanitation and very basic food production. The idea is to 
transform the area into an ecological paradise: two types of biodegradable toilet, a nursery, a compost heap, a 
mud brick maker, a water pool, plots for fruit, veg, plants, space to keep animals and buildings for workshops 
and classes. The plot will act as a model for other communities to see and learn how best to make use of their 
land. On a sunny day you can see down to the ocean from Mama Pats and it?s difficult to describe in words 
the beauty of the landscape and the sense of peace you feel when you?re up here.  
As a volunteer you can work with the family at Mama Pats and the Pondo team to sow seeds, build chicken 
coops and plant gooseberry bushes. You can work with the teachers at the school, make crafts, garden, and 
learn Xhosa. You can create workshops for the boys at the local orphanage where there is talent and 
enthusiasm and laughter in abundance. A hearty breakfast, a satisfying lunch and a bloody tasty dinner are all 
included ? a good mix of traditional and western style grub.  
If you are looking to really experience Africa amongst the people who live, know and understand the land 
and its history, (and have an absolute blast doing it) then come to Amapondo. Day trips also included and 
they never work you too hard! It?s an incredibly relaxed and beautiful place to be. I will never, ever forget 
my time here.  
Kelly Leach. UK. 25th October 2007 
266 
 
Appendix 11: Other sources of grounded theory data 
 
 
Data were collected from web-sites offering information about volunteer tourism. 
 
? http://www.aviva-sa.com/ 
? http://www.voluntourism.org/ 
? http://www.macmillandictionary.com/MED-Magazine/July2006/40-New-World.htm 
? http://www.north-by-north-east.com/articles/08_05_1.asp 
? http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/voluntourim 
? http://www.pepytours.com/pepy-press/56-pepy-press/154-give-away-get-away 
? http://www.wordspy.com/words/voluntourism.asp 
? http://www.brijit.com/abstract/23276/voluntourism 
? http://www.oneearthsafaris.com/Specials/OneEarthSukumaVoluntourism/tabid/7406/Default.aspx 
? http://www.energizeinc.com/hot/2007/07feb.html 
? http://www.worldvolunteerweb.org/browse/volunteering-issues/vacation-volunteering/doc/voluntourism-
 pros-cons.html 
? http://www.godifferently.com/voluntourism.asp 
? http://cabm.net/en/node/113303 
? http://rsvp-oc.blogspot.com/2007/06/check-out-voluntourism.html 
? http://www.intheknowtraveler.com/1597 
? http://www.exquisitesafaris.com/index.php/journal/more/voluntourism1/ 
? http://www.voluntourmorocco.org/about.html 
? http://www.urlfan.com/local/check_out_voluntourism/70135777.html 
? http://whathappensnow.com/articles_show.cfm?id=401&cat=7&sub=1 
? http://www.montanaverdepz.com/en/voluntourism.html 
? http://sustainable-tourism.wetpaint.com/page/Voluntourism?t=anon 
? http://gobudgettravel.com/volunteer-abroad/voluntourism-industry-unethical 
? http://www.sustainabletravelinternational.org/documents/op_tp_voluntourism.html 
? http://elevatevents.com/destinations/blog.html/?p=38 
? http://www.ramblingtraveler.com/2007/06/defending-voluntourism.html 
? http://www.pifadventures.com/blog/2008/07/voluntourism-what-is-it.html 
? http://www.worldhum.com/weblog/item/voluntourism_overpriced_guilt_trips_real_chance_to_save_the_w
 orld_20070731 
? http://ezinearticles.com/?Venturing-Onto-the-Voluntourism-Path---An-Easy-to-Follow-
 Roadmap&id=1238490 
? http://www.alertnet.org/db/blogs/40453/2007/07/15-170930-1.htm 
? http://www.bt.com.bn/en/travel/2008/07/13/voluntourism_catching_on_for_surfers_with_conscience 
? http://www.uow.edu.au/careers/jobboard/current/98625242.HTM 
? http://voluntourism.co.uk/ 
? http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2007_Dec_17/ai_n21157399 
? http://ivr.org.uk/ 
? http://www.globeaware.org/content/press/condenast.php 
? http://www.ethicalvolunteering.org 
  
267 
 
Data were collected from blog-sites offering information about volunteer tourism. 
? Philanthropic Travel   
This is a piece regarding the pro/con argument for why voluntourism may make a 
better approach to travel than simply giving money. 
http://www.thewholefamilytravels.com/2008/06/philanthropic-travel/ 
? To Volunteer Or Not To Volunteer?  
Paul Glynn delivers his personal experience along with some pros and cons on the 
voluntourism travel genre.  
http://optimistworld.com/Articles.aspx?id=1bad8a04-c232-4845-860c-
 25eafa1d219a&style=travel&page=1 
? Poorism, Visiting Slums As A Tourist Experience  
This entry on Travel Pod is an absolute MUST read for those who want to get some 
perspective. Here are lots of arguments from folks that have made comments 
regarding voluntourism as well.  
http://www.travelpod.com/forums/index.php?s=acde5d052064ed2cc242f9d1ff2ae3e3&sho
 wtopic=7968&pid=52729&st=0&#entry52729 
? Does The Sun Shine In Uganda?  
Alyssa opens her voluntourism experience of Uganda to a world who may very 
well be interested in doing the same at some point. She has since travelled to 
Uganda and you can read additional posts; but this is a great start.  
http://alyssasadventures.blogspot.com/2008/05/does-sun-shine-in-uganda.html 
? The Constructive Way to Get Through That Impending Existential/Quarter-
 Life/Mid-Life/Wrong-Side-of-25-and-Single Crisis  
Give Lisa Renaud some credit for the title of this blog post. Talk about taking a 
positive slant on things. She sees voluntourism as an option for those who need 
purpose beyond self.  
http://upgradeitall.blogspot.com/2008/05/constructive-way-to-get-through-that.html 
? Voluntourism: The Right Fit 
Cecily O'Connor shares her take on voluntourism, citing the survey results that 
Bob Benson's team at the University of California San Diego Extension offered as part 
of their new Center for Global Volunteer Service.  
http://redwoodage.com/content/view/134604/49 
Data were collected from media stories offering information about volunteer 
tourism. 
268 
 
? Voluntourism 2.0  
The Wall Street Journal takes time from the financial markets to give their take on the emergence of 
VolunTourism.  
http://online.wsj.com/article/SB121460918786912073.html?mod=googlenews_wsj 
? Guatemala Volunteer Vacations: Some Work, All Play  
This article by Jennifer Block shares the notion that volunteer vacations may be heading towards a more 
balanced approach, at least in Guatemala.  
http://www.plentymag.com/features/2008/05/eco_tourism_in_guatemala.php 
? Voluntourism: Tourists Out To Change The World  
Lynn Vincent gives an account of the varying viewpoints regarding VolunTourism.  
http://www.capitalresearch.org/pubs/pdf/v1210086272.pdf 
? The Changing Face Of International Volunteering: Trends In Volunteer Opportunities Abroad  
Volker Poelzl provides a review of some of the different options for travelling and volunteering, including 
VolunTourism.  
http://www.transitionsabroad.com/listings/work/volunteer/articles/trends_in_volunteering_abroad.shtml 
? Volunteer Vacations provide fresh opportunities for service 
Matt Thacker writes about volunteer vacations in BYU News.  
http://www.newsnet.byu.edu/story.cfm/69013 
? Small Community welcomes foreign volunteers  
Amanda Zibners Naprawa writes an article on international volunteering in The Tico Times. 
http://www.globeaware.org/Content/press/Small_Community_Welcomes.pdf  
? Special Issue: Tours of a lifetime 
Heather Wyatt writes about tours of a lifetime which include volunteering trips. 
http://press.nationalgeographic.com/pressroom/index.jsp?pageID=pressReleases_detail&siteID=1&cid=
 1209138752425  
? Get in some volunteer work on vacation 
A press release written by Laura Daily, special contributor to The Dallas Morning News 
http://www.globeaware.org/Content/press/press_dallasnews4.php  
? Krasang Roleung, Cambodia 
An article written by Gene Sloan for USA Today on Andrew Krupp?s experience of being a volunteer 
http://www.globeaware.org/Content/press/press_usatoday2.php  
? Voluntourism scams do-gooders  
269 
 
An article written in the Washington Times Sept 2007, unnamed 
http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2007/sep/10/voluntourism-scams-do-gooders/ 
 
Data were collected from the general literature on volunteer tourism. 
The Tourist Experience (Ryan, 1996; 1997) 
Volunteer Tourism: Experiences that Make a Difference (Wearing, 2001) 
VolunTourism: Harmonising Stewardship and Entrepreneurship (Clemmons, 
2008a) 
So You May Know ? Gathering the Stakeholders (Clemmons, 2008b) 
Wisdom & Insight ? Living your sense of purpose through VolunTourism (Parker, 
2008) 
3-Q?s Small Destinations and VolunTourism (Clemmons and Sandstrom, 2008) 
Supply Chain ? Myanmar & Southeast Asian VolunTourism (Selva, 2008) 
Study & Research ? Initial Thoughts & Reflections: On the VolunTourist Survey 
(McGehee, 2008) 
Voluntourism: A Brief History of Tourists as Witnesses and Advocates for Justice, 
(Phaedra and Pezzullo, 2007) 
The Process of Re-entry (Weaver, 1987)   
A Cultural Encounter through Volunteer Tourism: Towards the ideals of 
Sustainable Tourism? (McIntosh and Zahra, 2007)  
Evolving Environmental Tourism Experiences in Zambia (Harlow and Pomfret, 
2007)  
The value of voluntourism (Jacobs, 2008) 
Trips of a lifetime (Kavountzis, 2008)  
Understanding the Motives and Benefits of Voluntourists: What makes them tick? 
(Brown, 2005)  
Travelling with a Purpose: Understanding the Motives and Benefits of Volunteer 
Vacationers (Brown and Lehto, 2005) 
Choosing Your Conservation-based Volunteer Tourism Market Segment with Care 
? Part 1: the motivators and the elements of the experience that were most 
important for the two primary markets (Coghlan, 2006a) 
Choosing Your Conservation-based Volunteer Tourism Market Segment with Care 
? Part 2: ensuring volunteer tourist satisfaction (Coghlan, 2006b) 
270 
 
Coming Home to Culture Shock: A preliminary analysis of volunteer experiences 
(Grabowski, Wearing and Lee, 2008) 
Voluntourism: Making the Personal Political (McGehee, 2005) 
Social change, discourse and volunteer tourism (McGehee and Santos, 2005) 
 
Data also included general correspondence which was either emailed to the 
researcher directly or found on the official American voluntourism web-site 
www.voluntourism.org and included: 
Email Subject: Volunteer Tourism - Setting the context for a New ATLAS Special 
Interest Group, received from Angela Benson, Principal Lecturer Tourism at the 
University of Brighton on 27.06.08. 
Letters to VolunTourism.org. (Clemmons, 2008c) 
 
Data were collected from Talk Shows on ?voluntourism?, ?volunteer tourism?, and 
?international volunteering?.   
The weekly live talk-cast www.talkshoe.com/tc/43239  is hosted by David 
Clemmons, founder of voluntourism.org and publisher and editor of VolunTourist.  
He hosts guests from both the volunteer sector and the tourism industry.  The 
following one hour broadcasts were coded analysed: 
14.08.07 ? What is voluntourism? 
Guests: Elicia Sabotini, Director ? Host Senior Sync; Christina Heinekke, Founder 
? Zolar Consulting 
01.04.08 ? Volunteer vacations and voluntourism. 
Guests: Randy Punley, Director - United Way of America; Paul Jones, Manager - 
Global Vision International; and Theresa Higgs, Director - United Planet 
12.02.08 ? Traveller?s philanthropy and voluntourism. 
Guests: Dominique Calmonopolis, Founder ? Elevate Destinations; and Duncan 
Beardsley, Founder ? Generosity in Action. 
02.10.07 ? A ?taste? of voluntourism. 
Guests: Margaret Joborski (Freelance Travel Writer); Deena Wynburg, (Founder ? 
Mindlight Global); and Chris Hill (Founder ? Hands Up Holidays, UK). 
CBS 2 interview at  
http://cbs2chicago.com/video/?id=46623@wbbm.dayport.com 
271 
 
13.07.08 - Voluntourism and Do-Good Vacations 
Guests: Lisa Dietlin, charity contributor 
272 
 
Appendix 12: A summary of a participant?s personality traits (extract) 
 
Re: Summary of Personality Traits for ?pittiramu@XXXX? 
Personality traits describe, relative to other people, the frequency or intensity of a person's feelings, 
thoughts, or behaviours. This report classifies you as low, average/balanced, or high in a trait; in a 
normal distribution of scores. 
Please keep in mind that "low 4-6," "average 7-17," and "high 18-20" scores on a personality test 
are not good or bad. A particular level on any trait will probably be neutral or irrelevant for a great 
many activities, be helpful for accomplishing some things, and detrimental for accomplishing other 
things.  
For Volunteers, your scores may be of interest to you before you go on your trip.  These 
results will be later compared to your post-trip results and any changes fed back to you.   
 
**************************************************************************************************************** 
Anxiety ? LOW (4) ? You are generally calm and fearless. 
Trust ? AVERAGE (17) - You assume that some people are fair, honest, and have good intentions 
whilst others are selfish, devious, and potentially dangerous.  
Self Efficacy ? AVERAGE (13) ? At times you believe you have the common sense, drive, and 
self-control necessary for achieving success, and at other times, you feel less effective and out of 
control.  
Artistic Interests ? AVERAGE (16) ? At times you love beauty, both in art and in nature and 
become easily involved and absorbed in artistic and natural events. Yet, at other times, you may 
lack this aesthetic sensitivity and interest.  
Depression ? LOW (5) - You rarely feel sad, dejected, and discouraged.  
Assertiveness ? AVERAGE (11) ? At times you like to speak out, take charge, and direct the 
activities of others and, at other times, you tend not to talk much and let others control the activities 
of the group.  
Emotionality ? AVERAGE (11) ? At times you have good access to and awareness of your own 
feelings but at other times, you may be unaware of these.  
Altruism ? AVERAGE (16) ? At times you find helping other people genuinely rewarding and are 
willing to assist those who are in need. At other times, requests for help can feel like an imposition 
rather than an opportunity for self-fulfilment.  
Dutifulness ? AVERAGE (15) ? At times, you have a strong sense of duty and moral obligation, 
and at other times, you find contracts, rules, and regulations overly confining and can be seen as 
unreliable or even irresponsible.   
Activity Level ? AVERAGE (8) ? At times you lead a fast-paced, busy life and move about quickly, 
energetically, and vigorously, and get involved in many activities.  At other times, you follow a 
slower and more leisurely, relaxed pace.   
Adventurousness ? HIGH (18) - You are eager to try new activities, travel to foreign lands, and 
experience different things. You find familiarity and routine boring, and will take a new route home 
just because it is different.   
**************************************************************************************************************** 
273 
 
Appendix 13: The note accompanying the personality inventory results 
 
Re: Volunteer ? Feed-back on Traits 
 
Thanks so much for completing the Questionnaire and Personality Inventory, I 
hope you find the attached summary interesting and reflective. If you don't 
mind, I will send you an email a couple of weeks after you return from your 
trip (it will probably be around late October) to ask you please to do the PI 
again so that I can match your 1st and 2nd scores to determine if, and where, 
changes have occurred, and by how much.  I will, of course, feed those back to 
you.  In the meantime, have a wonderful trip and may it be a most memorable 
one in a truly beautiful part of the world.  If you have any questions at all on 
this, please do not hesitate to contact me. 
Kind Regards  
Zo? 
 
Re: CGM ? Feed-back on Traits 
 
Thanks so much for completing the Questionnaire and Personality Inventory, I 
hope you find the attached summary interesting and reflective. If you don't 
mind, I will send you an email in 6 months time to ask you please to do the PI 
again so that I can match your 1st and 2nd scores to determine if, and where, 
changes have occurred, and by how much. I will, of course, feed those back to 
you. If you have any questions at all on this, please do not hesitate to contact 
me. 
Kind Regards  
Zo? 
274 
 
Appendix 14: Request for completion of the second personality inventory 
 
Re: How has your trip changed you? Please complete Stage 2..... 
 
Hi there! 
By this stage, you will have returned from your trip after a unique experience.   
To find out how it may have changed you, please would you copy and paste the 
following link into your web-browser and complete the Personality Inventory? 
 
http://www.bucksresearch.org.uk/Questionnaire.htm 
Please don't forget to enter your email address in the relevant field too. 
 
The results will be fed back to you within 3 working days.  Depending on these 
changes, and if you don't mind, I may ask you a few questions about your trip, 
via email.  If you have any questions at all, please feel free to email me. 
Many Thanks 
Kind Regards  
Zo? 
 
Re: Request Stage 2 - Control Group Member 
 
Hi there! 
Yes, 6 months have gone by, 
To find out how you may have changed over the last 6 months, please would 
you copy and paste the following link into your web-browser and complete the 
Personality Inventory? 
 
http://www.bucksresearch.org.uk/Questionnaire.htm 
Please don't forget to enter your email address in the relevant field too. 
 
The results will be fed back to you within 3 working days.  Depending on these 
changes, and if you don't mind, I may ask you a few questions, via email.   
Many Thanks 
Kind Regards  
Zo? 
 
275 
 
Appendix 15: A summary of a person?s personality trait changes 
 
 
 
Re: Summary of Personality Traits for ?moosie182@XXXX? 
 
For Volunteers, the scores on your second Personality Inventory were compared to your first 
scores.  There traits (below) reflect the areas of most change since you returned from your trip.   
The four associated statements are listed under each trait to assist you in your reflections. 
 
********************************************************************************************************** 
 
 
Artistic Interests ? INCREASED ? You have become more interested in art and in nature and are 
more easily involved and absorbed in artistic and natural events.  
 
Statement 1 Believe in the importance of art 
Statement 2 See beauty in things  
Statement 3 Like poetry 
Statement 4 Enjoy going to art museums 
 
 
 
 
Adventurousness ? INCREASED ? You are more eager to try new activities, travel to foreign 
lands, and experience different things and find familiarity and routine boring. 
 
Statement 1 Prefer variety to routine 
Statement 2 Like to try new things 
Statement 3 Like changes 
Statement 4 Am not attached to conventional ways 
 
 
 
********************************************************************************************************** 
 
276 
 
Appendix 16: Thank you note and questions relating to the changes 
 
Re: Feed-back, on changes in your traits, after your volunteer vacation 
 
Hi XXXX, 
 
Thanks so much for completing STAGE 2 and so quickly.  You may find your results quite 
thought provoking and I personally find them very interesting. On that subject, you have 
changed in five areas (out of fifteen).  That is, your levels of Anxiety, Depression 
and Intellect have all Decreased since you last did the PI (please see attached for 
explanations) and your levels of Trust and Altruism have Increased. There are, therefore, 
just a few questions I would like to ask if you have time.  
 
  
When you have had time to think about them, please would you send me a short reply 
describing the trip?s experience/s (if any) which you think may have led to each of the 
change/s (attached) and what you are doing differently now as a result (if anything)?  If 
your time is limited, please just comment on Trust and Depression because they were the 
areas of greatest change. 
 
If you have any questions at all, please do not hesitate to contact me.  These answers are 
only used for this research and are not fed back to Aviva. 
 
Yours eternally grateful 
Zoe 
277 
 
Appendix 17: Request for completion of a third personality inventory 
 
 
Re: It is roughly one to two years since your volunteering trip with Aviva.........have the 
changes you experienced still held or have they returned to their base-line? 
  
Hi, it is Zoe again!  
My research is taking me to new pastures and I am intrigued to know whether the changes 
people experienced, as a result of their international volunteering trip, still hold one to two 
years later. Recent research is now showing that lasting impacts are likely to evolve over 
time. It takes time for people to process new experiences. 
  
If you can find the time to complete the personality inventory again, I would be very 
grateful. Please would you copy and paste the following link into your web-browser and 
complete the Personality Inventory? 
 
http://www.bucksresearch.org.uk/Questionnaire.htm 
Please don't forget to enter your email address in the relevant field too. 
 
I will analyse your data and let you know the answer within five working days. There will 
be no further questions, I promise! 
  
Many Thanks 
Kind Regards 
Zoe 
278 
 
Appendix 18: A summary report of the follow-up results 
 
 
Re: Follow-up: approximately 1-2 years later 
 
Hi Elena, 
Thank you so much for completing yet another PI.  
  
With regard to the analysis, I thought this would be a simple one-liner.....not so!  
When you returned from SA, you showed a significant decrease in your anxiety levels and 
increases in assertiveness and adventurousness (a reminder of the definitions is below).  
Now, over a year later, your anxiety levels and assertiveness remain at their post-trip 
scores. But, with regard to adventurousness, it has dropped slightly but not to the pre-trip 
score. However, a new trait is now significantly different - your activity levels have 
dropped below both scores; the new score is, however, still 'average' for your gender and 
age. 
   
Interesting results but not sure what to make of them generally until I receive much more 
data through!  
Thanks ever so much for taking the time and trouble to complete the inventory again. 
Kind regards 
Zoe 
  
The definitions of the 15 personality traits measured. 
Anxiety ? The "fight-or-flight" system of the brain of anxious individuals is too easily and too often engaged. Therefore, 
people who are anxious often feel like something dangerous is about to happen. They may be afraid of specific situations or 
be just generally fearful. They feel tense, jittery, and nervous. Persons low in anxiety are generally calm and fearless.  
Trust ? A person with high trust assumes that most people are fair, honest, and have good intentions. Persons low in trust, 
see others as selfish, devious, and potentially dangerous.  
Self Efficacy ? Self-Efficacy describes confidence in one's ability to accomplish things. High scorers believe they have the 
common sense, drive, and self-control necessary for achieving success. Low scorers do not feel effective, and may have a 
sense that they are not in control of their lives.  
Artistic Interests ? High scorers on this scale love beauty, both in art and in nature. They become easily involved and 
absorbed in artistic and natural events. They are neither necessarily artistically trained nor talented, although many will be. 
The defining features of this scale are interest in, and appreciation of natural and artificial beauty. Low scorers lack aesthetic 
sensitivity and interest in the arts.  
Depression ? This scale measures the tendency to feel sad, dejected, and discouraged. High scorers lack energy and have 
difficult initiating activities. Low scorers tend to be free from these depressive feelings.  
Assertiveness ? High scorers in assertiveness like to speak out, take charge, and direct the activities of others. They tend 
to be leaders in groups. Low scorers tend not to talk much and let others control the activities of groups.  
Emotionality ? Persons high on emotionality have good access to and awareness of their own feelings. Low scorers are 
less aware of their feelings and tend not to express their emotions openly.  
Altruism ? Altruistic people find helping other people genuinely rewarding. Consequently, they are generally willing to assist 
those who are in need. Altruistic people find that doing things for others is a form of self-fulfilment rather than self-sacrifice. 
Low scorers on this scale do not particularly like helping those in need. Requests for help feel like an imposition rather than 
an opportunity for self-fulfilment.  
279 
 
Dutifulness ? This scale reflects the strength of a person's sense of duty and obligation. Those who score high on this 
scale have a strong sense of moral obligation. Low scorers find contracts, rules, and regulations overly confining. They are 
likely to be seen as unreliable or even irresponsible.  
Activity Level ? Active individuals lead fast-paced, busy lives. They move about quickly, energetically, and vigorously, and 
they are involved in many activities. People who score low on this scale follow a slower and more leisurely, relaxed pace.  
Adventurousness ? High scorers on adventurousness are eager to try new activities, travel to foreign lands, and 
experience different things. They find familiarity and routine boring, and will take a new route home just because it is 
different. Low scorers tend to feel uncomfortable with change and prefer familiar routines.  
Intellect ? Intellect and artistic interests are the two most important, central aspects of openness to experience. High 
scorers on Intellect love to play with ideas. They are open-minded to new and unusual ideas, and like to debate intellectual 
issues. They enjoy riddles, puzzles, and brain teasers. Low scorers on Intellect prefer dealing with people or things rather 
than ideas. They regard intellectual exercises as a waste of time. Intellect should not be equated with intelligence. Intellect 
is an intellectual style, not an intellectual ability, although high scorers on Intellect score slightly higher than low-Intellect 
individuals on standardized intelligence tests.  
Vulnerability ? High scorers on vulnerability experience panic, confusion, and helplessness when under pressure or stress. 
Low scorers feel more poised, confident, and clear-thinking when stressed.  
Liberalism ? Psychological liberalism refers to a readiness to challenge authority, convention, and traditional values. In its 
most extreme form, psychological liberalism can even represent outright hostility toward rules, sympathy for law-breakers, 
and love of ambiguity, chaos, and disorder. Psychological conservatives prefer the security and stability brought by 
conformity to tradition. Psychological liberalism and conservatism are not identical to political affiliation, but certainly incline 
individuals toward certain political parties.  
Cautiousness ? Cautiousness describes the disposition to think through possibilities before acting. High scorers on the 
cautiousness scale take their time when making decisions. Low scorers often say or do first thing that comes to mind 
without deliberating alternatives and the probable consequences.  
 
280 
 
Appendix 19: A few general questions about the volunteer?s trip 
 
Re: Thank you - Just a few more short questions about your trip 
 
Hi Claire, 
 
1. Thank you so much for putting the time and effort into thinking about your 
experience.  Your answers make so much sense; they were very clear and concise 
and contained very useful information which will be very valuable to my thesis, 
thank you. It sounds like we should package volunteering as part of a serious 
weight loss program; well done, I am sure you feel so much better about yourself 
and are able to do so much more now. 
  
2. I am 3/4 of the way through my research and I am presenting preliminary findings 
to a conference later in the year:  
'The international volunteer tourism experience in South Africa: An investigation 
into the impact on the tourist'  
A summary of the paper is attached if you are interested.   
  
 
3. Would you mind answering a few other questions about your trip (a very brief 
answer is all I need on these)?  That is, 
   
1. What was the general cost of your whole trip, including all airfares, tourism 
activities etc?  
2. Has your view of international volunteering changed as a result of your trip?  
3. How long was your trip?  
4. Approximately what proportion of your time did you spend on volunteer 
work?  
5. How did you spend the rest of your time?  
6. Would you participate in a similar project either in SA or elsewhere? 
 
Thanks for everything, 
Kind regards  
Zoe 
281 
 
Appendix 20: The grounded theory coding and analysis process (extract) 
 
 
 
 
Margin 
Themes 
Text 
Codes are underlined 
Involvement 
Awareness 
Impact on people 
Travel 
?Direct involvement and a direct understanding of 
what is happening there and how your presence is 
impacting on those people in that part of the world? 
 
282 
 
Appendix 21: Post-it notes reflecting the concepts of volunteer tourism 
 
 
 
283 
 
Appendix 22: Comparison between the first and second inventory scores 
 
 
 
SUMMARY    
Trait   Pre Score Post Score Change 
Anxiety 14 11 3 
Trust  10 10 0 
Self-Efficacy 15 12 3 
Artistic Interests 17 19 -2 
Depression 15 15 0 
Assertiveness 9 10 -1 
Emotionality 17 16 1 
Altruism 17 18 -1 
Dutifulness 15 17 -2 
Activity Level 9 8 1 
Adventurousness 9 10 -1 
Intellect 10 12 -2 
Vulnerability 12 11 1 
Liberalism 13 13 0 
Cautiousness 14 16 -2 
 
284 
 
Appendix 23: The IPA coding and analysis process (extract) 
 
 
Margin Text 
 
 
 
 
 
ADV, EXP, 3e 
 
 
ADV, CHG, 3f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
?Adventurousness - I have definitely been bitten by 
the travel bug whilst on my trip. Prior to my departure 
a lot of people (including myself) thought I was mad 
to be leaving and travelling to a country I had never 
been to, on my own. I felt an immense sense of 
achievement that I had done what I did and fell in love 
with Africa. I would definitely return to south Africa 
and would love to visit other countries, such as 
Namibia, Botswana, Mozambique and travel as a sole 
female traveller, which is something I would never 
have thought I would do? 
 
Where ADV = the trait, EXP or CHG (experience or change), 3 = participant 
number and e = theme number. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
P.T.O for working example 
285 
 
  
286 
 
Appendix 24: The summary sheet after IPA coding (extract) 
 
 
 
 
 
Margin 
 
 
Adventurousness Trait 
 
Experience 
 
 
 
Category 
 
V    3e 
 
 
Travelling to a country I 
had never been to, on my 
own. 
In different place 
On own 
 
Where V = volunteer or C = control group member, the arrow indicates an 
increase or decrease in the trait and 3e = the participant number and theme 
number respectively. 
 
287 
 
Appendix 25: The summary sheet for ?impacts/changes? (extract) 
 
288 
 
Appendix 26: The summary sheet for ?experiences? (extract) 
 
 
 
289 
 
Appendix 27: A diary extract - recording ethical issues/challenges 
 
 
Ethical Question/Issue By whom Action taken 
06.05.08 ? Do I need Ethics approval 
because I am studying participants 
from around the world, not just the 
UK, and the voluntourism provider is 
in South Africa ? 
Zoe 
Alexander 
I asked Dr Ali Bakir and Dr Eugenia 
Wickens during a tutorial.  They said 
it is not required. 
28.05.08 ? What ethical 
considerations are involved in data 
collection via a web-site? 
Zoe 
Alexander 
I discussed the ethical considerations 
with the web-site designer (Dr Dorin 
Festeu).  We made sure that the 
following aspects were incorporated 
into the web-site: 
1. Volunteers participated, by choice, 
via a link from their electronic 
booking confirmation. 
2. No data was stored on the web (it 
was automatically transferred to my 
personal email address and then 
manually onto an excel spreadsheet. 
3. No name was attached to a record, 
just a combination of alphanumeric 
characters to identify the record 
myself. 
4. There was an introductory note 
stating that all data will be treated in 
the strictest confidence and that no 
data will be disclosed to anyone.  
5. There was a contact name for any 
queries with regard to the web-site 
or its contents. 
6. Any ?submission? gave the 
respondent an option not to send the 
data after they were advised, via a 
pop-up, that I will be able to see 
their email address.  I needed this in 
order to correspond with them later. 
7. Only questions that were relevant to 
the research were asked. 
8. The respondents were told the aim 
of the research via the introductory 
note. 
9. The web-site was a secure site 
09.06.08 ? I raised the question (of 
the 06.05.08) during a presentation 
of my research at a Research 
Colloquium. 
Zoe 
Alexander 
To check whether I perhaps do need 
Ethics approval.  See below. 
11.06.08 ? I was faced with the 
problem of reducing the personality 
inventory (PI) by half.  Would this 
affect the integrity of the PI (an 
ethical consideration)? And 
furthermore, how would I score the 
PI, without the ethical issue around 
faking scores for questions not 
asked, on the IPIP NEO web-site? 
Zoe 
Alexander 
I contacted John Johnson (Professor 
of Psychology Pennsylvania State 
University, USA), a custodian of the 
NEO Personality Inventory.  He 
confirmed that the idea of reducing 
the 120-item to 60-items would be 
reliable as long as the researcher 
retained four questions per trait.  He 
also gave me access to a scoring 
mechanism which I could implement 
myself without using the IPI-NEO 
scoring web-site. 
 
24.06.08 ? Double Check - Do I need 
Ethics Approval because I am 
studying participants from around the 
world, not just the UK, and the 
Zoe 
Alexander 
I asked Howard Bush (Bucks New 
University Research Unit) and he 
suggested I speak to Professor 
Barbara Humberstone (BH) who 
290 
 
voluntourism provider is in South 
Africa (SA)? 
wrote the faculty?s research and 
ethics policy.  Spoke to BH - she said 
that, because the proposal was 
accepted and no ethical issues were 
raised at the time, I can assume the 
research fulfils the university 
guidelines.  She also suggested I 
review the British Psychological 
Society?s (BPS) Code of Ethics and 
Conduct as well as maintain this 
diary. 
The BPS Code of Ethics and 
Conduct was reviewed on 04.07.08 
and I was thereafter happy that the 
research was being conducted within 
the boundaries of this. 
 
291 
 
Appendix 28: The questions asked about non-completion 
 
Re: 3rd Request ? Feedback on your traits after your trip, along with some other options. 
 
 
Hi there, 
Forgive this email; you completed Stage 2 of the personality inventory but didn't provide 
any explanation for the significant changes in some of your traits (listed further below).  I 
hope you don't mind me asking your honest reason for not being able to respond.  Please 
could you choose the relevant number (below) and simply reply to this with that number in 
the subject box? 
Thanks a million, Zoe   
  
 
Was it: 
1. Didn't have the time  
2. Forgot  
3. Didn't feel comfortable answering the questions  
4. Didn't believe the results  
5. Couldn't think of any reason why there was the change  
6. Other reason 
 
 
 
  
292 
 
PUBLICATIONS 
 
 
Journal papers 
Alexander, Z., Bakir, A. and Wickens, E. (2010) ?An Investigation into the Impact of 
Vacation Travel on the Tourist?, International Journal of Tourism Research, 
Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com), DOI 
10.1002/jtr.777. 
 
Alexander, Z. (2012) ?International volunteer tourism experience in South Africa: 
an investigation into the impact on the tourist?, Journal of Hospitality Marketing & 
Management, In Press. 
 
Book chapters 
Alexander, Z. and Bakir, A. (2011) ?Understanding Voluntourism: A Glaserian 
Grounded Theory Study?, in Benson, A. (ed.) Volunteer Tourism: Theoretical 
Frameworks to Practical Applications, Routledge, Oxford, 9-29. 
 
Alexander, Z. and Bakir, A. (2012) ?The development of self through volunteer 
tourism? in Pearce, P. and Filep, S. (eds) Tourist Experience and Fulfilment: 
Insights from Positive Psychology, Routledge, In Press. 
 
Alexander, Z. (2012) ?The transformative potential of volunteer tourism? in Church, 
S. and Gould, M. (eds) Transformative Tourism Stories from Volunteers, In Press. 
 
Conference papers 
Alexander, Z. and Bakir, A. (2009) Understanding Voluntourism: A Glaserian 
Grounded Theory Study, International conference on The Voluntourism Effect: 
Case Studies and Investigations, California, March 18-20th. 
 
Alexander, Z. and Bakir, A. (2010) International voluntourism experience in South 
Africa: Does it change the volunteer?, International Conference on Sustainable 
Tourism: Issues, Debates & Challenges ? Special stream on Travel Philanthropy, 
Volunteer and Charity Tourism, Crete, April 22-25th. 
 
293 
 
Alexander, Z. and Bakir, A. (2010) The international volunteer tourism experience 
in South Africa: An investigation into the impact on the tourist, International tourism 
conference, Nelspruit, South Africa, November 15-19th. 
 
Articles 
Alexander, Z. (2009) ?The effect of voluntourism (volunteer tourism) on the 
volunteer (the self)?, The VolunTourist, 5 (2), Published online in 
www.voluntourism.org/news-studyandresearch52.htm.