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 Chapter?VI?
 Final?Thoughts?and?Conclusions?
 ?
 ?
 ?
 ?
 MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE?IN?ENGLAND?AND?FRANCE?
 DURING?THE?AGE?OF?ELEGANCE?
 ?
 ?
?
 MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?VI???Final?Thoughts?&?Conclusions? ???Page?333?
 On?the?cover:?
 ? Top?Picture:?The?Harewood?Library?Table?currently?at?Temple?Newsom,?picture?taken?
 by?the?author?September?2009.?
 ?
 ? Lower?Picture:?The?Trellised?secr?taire???abattant?located?in?The?Wallace?Collection?
 (F302).??Picture?taken?from:??P.?Hughes,?The?Wallace?Collection?Catalogue?of?
 Furniture?Vol?II,?p.?997.
?
 MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?VI???Final?Thoughts?&?Conclusions? ???Page?334?
 ?
 A. Introduction?
 ?
 As?outlined?in?the?Introduction,?this?thesis?was?formed?around?three?inter?related?
 objectives:??
 ?
 ? Firstly,?it?considered?cultural,?sociological?and?economic?factors?influencing?the?
 production?of?fashion?and?fashionable?furniture?in?late?18th?Century?England?and?
 France?
 ? Secondly,?it?developed?a?case?study?around?two?pieces?of?fashionable?furniture?(one?
 English?and?one?French)?
 ? Finally,?this?case?study?was?interpreted?in?such?a?way?as?to?illuminate?the?culture?and?
 society?that?produced?them?and?develop?the?central?theme?of?the?thesis???making?
 fashionable?furniture?in?the?age?of?elegance.??
 ?
 What?have?been?the?outcomes??
 ?
 Firstly?(it?is?hoped)?this?thesis?has?had?one?very?concrete?outcome???a?set?of?objective?data?
 which?scholars?interested?in?furniture?by?Chippendale?and?Riesener?(the?authors?of?the?case?
 study?pieces)?can?employ?to?better?understand?(and?if?necessary?identify)?their?furniture.?
 This?data?represents?a?useful?contribution?to?knowledge?in?the?field?and?could?be?used?to?re?
 examine?the?catalogue?raisonne(s)?of?these?two?significant?historical?figures.?As?noted?
 above,?this?author?has?considerable?reservations?about?several?pieces?currently?attributed?to?
 these?figures.?
 ?
 Secondly,?this?project?also?has?implications?for?future?work?in?this?cultural?field?rather?more?
 generally.?The?detailed?study?of?these?two?pieces?has?shone?light?on?many?aspects?of?the?
 culture?of?C18th?England?and?France,?particularly?as?regards?the?rich?subject?of?fashion.??
 Hodder?suggests?that?all?cultural?items?are??meaningful??in?three?ways;?through?their?use,?
?
 MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?VI???Final?Thoughts?&?Conclusions? ???Page?335?
 through?their?symbolic?meaning?and?through?their?historical?significance.?1???It?could?be?
 argued?that?the?process?of?making?the?objective?also?provides?an?indication?of?the?objects?
 importance.???One?could?argue?that?the?object?of?this?thesis?has?been?to?look?at?two?objects?
 in?detail?and?to?identify?all?three?of?these?ways?of?considering?their?importance.??It?is?only?by?
 using?all?of?the?information?available?that?one?gets?the?fullest?and?most?accurate?picture?and?
 thus?achieve?the?final?objective.????
 ?
 Before?presenting?the?conclusions,?some?thoughts?about?the?approaches?that?were?used?
 should?be?discussed?to?point?up?some?of?the?issues?that?emerged?in?the?course?of?the?
 research?journey.?
 ?
 B.? Reflections?on?the?Research?Journey??
 ?
 While?the?general?approach?used?in?this?research?project?was?developed?out?of?models?
 proposed?by?E.?Fleming,?J.?Prown?and?P.?Zimmerman,?this?thesis?places?greater?emphasis?on?
 detailed?quantitative?measures?and?makes?a?more?pronounced?use?of?comparison?in?order?
 to?reach?its?conclusions.?This?thesis?is?predicated?on?the?belief?that?(in?this?instance)?a?
 comparative?case?study?(of?English?and?French?examples?respectively)?worked?to?provide?a?
 much?better?understanding?of?the?individual?pieces?of?furniture?at?issue?and?ultimately?allow?
 a?much?better?understanding?of?the?cultural?field???as?least?in?so?far?as?it?extends?to?
 fashionable?furniture?in?C18th?England?and?France.??The?use?of?this?model?made?it?possible?
 to?set?up?a?system?of?analysis?that?could?easily?be?extended?to?other?furniture???either?by?the?
 same?makers?or?by?others.???
 ?
 However,?even?in?detailing?the?construction?of?the?Chippendale?and?Riesener?writing?tables,?
 it?did?not?go?as?far?as?it?might.??The?following?measurements?would?have?done?much?to?
 complete?this?analysis2:???
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 1?I.?Hodder,?The?Contextual?Analysis?of?Symbolic?Meanings,?in?Hodder,?I.,?The?Archaeology?of?Contextual?
 Meanings,?Cambridge?University?Press,?Cambridge,?UK,?1987,?pp.?1??10.?
 2?Most?of?these?could?be?conducted?using?non?invasive?techniques?such?as?the?UV?VIS?Spectrometer?to?identify?
 dyes,?UV?florescence?to?identify?the?surface?coatings,?and?the?recent?analytical?techniques?to?identify?the?
 source?of?glues?by?the?Getty?Centre.?(See:?F.?Philip,?UV?Light?Photography?as?an?Aid?in?the?Conservation?of?18th?
 Century?Furniture,?Wag?post?prints,?1997?for?information?on?surface?coating?identification,?H.?Piening,?UV/VIS?
?
 MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?VI???Final?Thoughts?&?Conclusions? ???Page?336?
 ?
 o Testing?the?surface?coatings?to?determine?what?was?originally?used?to?coat?and?
 protect?these?two?pieces.??
 o X?ray?different?joints?to?get?a?deeper?understanding?of?the?construction?of?these?
 types?of?furniture.??
 o Determining?the?dyes?used?to?colour?the?veneers.??
 o Testing?the?glues?in?order?to?determine?the?type?of?glue?used.?
 o Microscopic?analysis?to?identify?the?type?of?woods?used.??
 o Dendrochronology?to?identify?the?age?of?the?wood?used?and?from?where?the?wood?
 was?harvested?(if?possible)3.??
 o Testing?the?metal?to?determine?the?exact?make?up?of?the?different?metals?used?to?
 make?the?different?components?(screws,?pins,?locks,?handles,?as?well?as,?decorative?
 pieces).??
 ?
 There?were?many?problems?in?organising?such?an?all?encompassing?and?comprehensive?
 analysis???most?to?do?with?time,?expertise,?access?and?technology???placing?them?out?of?the?
 reach?of?this?study.?However,?much?was?accomplished.??For?example,?there?was?extensive?
 research?into?the?dyes,?the?surface?coatings?and?glues?to?identify?the?possible?ingredients?
 that?could?have?been?used?on?the?furniture?examined?for?the?case?study.???Research?around?
 the?gilded?metals?used?to?decorate?the?furniture?(on?these?pieces?and?in?this?period)?has?
 been?included.?So,?while?the?research?(inevitably)?could?go?further,?without?a?doubt?a?
 template?has?been?set?out?which?would?allow?for?the?research?on?these?pieces?to?be?more?
 fully?completed.??
 ?
 ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 Absorbtion?Spectrometry:?A?Non?Destructive?Method?For?Dyestuff?Identification,?Presented?at?conference:??
 Marquetry???Past?and?Present?2nd?Scandinavian?Symposium?on?Furniture?Technology?and?Design?Vadstena,?
 Sweden?May?10?12,?2007?for?an?approach?to?identify?dyes,?and?A.?Heginbotham,?V.?Millay,??and?M.?Quick,?The?
 Use?of?Immunofluorescence?Microscopy?(IFM)?and?Enzyme?Linked?Immunosorbent?Assay?(ELISA)?as?
 Complementary?Techniques?for?Protein?Identification?in?Artists??Materials,?WAGPostprints,?2004,?Portland?
 Oregan?for?information?on?glue?identification.?
 3?Obviously?this?is?limited?to?situations?where?there?is?a?large?enough?sample?of?the?wood?to?allow?for?this?type?
 of?analysis.?It?is?also?more?difficult?to?conduct?this?analysis?on?certain?species?of?wood?(mahogany?for?example?
 is?thought?to?be?difficult?to?analyse?using?these?techniques.)?As?a?result,?in?many?cases?with?furniture?this?is?not?
 possible.??
?
 MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?VI???Final?Thoughts?&?Conclusions? ???Page?337?
 There?is?one?issue?in?particular?that?needs?to?be?considered?when?interpreting?the?data?that?
 presented?within?this?thesis?and?that?is?to?do?with?the?concept?of??good?workshop?practice?.??
 Many?of?the?characteristics?identified?by?this?research,?one?could?argue,?correspond?to?the?
 kind?of?good?workshop?practice?that?would?be?followed?by?any?good?C18th?workshop.????For?
 example?the?use?of?the?wide?solid?dovetails?by?Riesener,?could?be?considered?basic?
 workshop?practice?in?France?and?therefore?this?detail?would?not?(in?itself)?differentiate?
 Riesener?from?any?of?a?dozen?other?good?cabinetmakers.??There?are?three?arguments?that?
 can?be?set?against?this.??The?first?is?that?although?there?are?a?number?of?different?and?
 acceptable?ways?to?handle?most?constructional?detail;?individual?workshops?generally?
 adopted?specific?and?uniform?practices.??Secondly,?it?is?usually?a?combination?of?
 characteristics?that?proves?decisive???not?an?individual?characteristic.?To?use?a?simplistic?
 example,?it?is?not?just?the?shape?of?the?dovetails?in?a?drawer?but?the?shape?of?the?dovetails,?
 in?conjunction?with?the?thickness?of?the?sides,?the?bottom,?of?the?front?and?the?way?the?
 bottom?is?attached?to?the?rest?of?the?drawer.??Thirdly,?we?simply?do?not?know?what?the?
 other?cabinetmakers?and?workshops?used?to?construct?their?pieces?and?until?we?conduct?a?
 similarly?detailed?analysis.?
 ?
 In?addition?to?this?there?are?other?limitations?that?need?to?be?considered?despite?the?
 extensive?measurements?that?were?taken.???
 ?
 ? First?and?foremost?there?are?issues?around?the?number?of?objects?available?for?
 research.??It?has?been?estimated?that?of?the?types?of?furniture?included?in?this?
 research?Chippendale?produced?a?total?of?10?library?tables4?and?Riesener?produced?
 approximately?51?secr?taire???abattants.5??For?a?variety?of?reasons,?many?of?these?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 4?In?addition?to?these?there?are?a?number?of?related?piece?of?furniture.??In?particular?there?are?three?known?
 dressing?/?writing?tables,?4?ladies?secretaries?(two?of?which?are?of?the?form?of?the?secr?taire???abattant???very?
 similar?to?the?ones?that?Riesener?produced.)?an?artists?table,?a?music?table?and?six?other?writing?tables.??Of?
 these?4?library?tables?are?included?in?this?research?along?with?1?of?the?dressing?/?writing?table,?one?of?the?
 secr?taire???abattant.???
 5?The?number?that?were?included?in?Chippendale?s?count?are?based?on?C.?Gilbert?s?detailed?listings?of?the?
 invoiced?amounts??(See?C.?Gilbert,?The?Life?and?Works?of?Thomas?Chippendale,?Studio?Vista/Christies,?London,?
 1978)?and?the?number?that?were?include?the?Riesener?estimates?are?based?on?the?Journal?du?Garde?Meuble?
 which?counts?all?the?furniture?that?was?delivered?to?members?of?the?Royal?family?(Various?Authors,?Journal?du?
 Garde?Meuble,?1761?1784,?These?are?detailed?listings?of?all?furniture?that?was?either?delivered,?ordered?or?
 repaired?in?service?for?France's?Royal?Households.?Copies?are?located?in?The?Wallace?Collection?Library?and?are?
 available?in?France's?archives.)?
?
 MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?VI???Final?Thoughts?&?Conclusions? ???Page?338?
 pieces?were?not?available?for?research.?6??However,?all?the?examples?that?were?
 available?were?included?in?this?research;?for?Chippendale?six?library?tables?were?
 studied?in?detail?and?likewise?there?were?six?Riesener?pieces?that?were?examined.?7???
 There?were?also?a?number?of?pieces?that?were?identified?but?could?not?be?included?
 because?either?they?could?not?be?located?or?the?owners?would?not?allow?close?
 inspection???again?placing?them?beyond?the?reach?of?this?study.8??
 ?
 ? The?comparisons?developed?in?this?thesis?included?comparison?of?Chippendale?s?
 Harewood?table?to?similar?tables?made?by?Chippendale?and?for?Riesener,?
 comparisons?were?made?to?other?secr?taire???abattant?that?were?made?by?Riesener.?
 There?were?also?cross?comparisons?developed?between?the?furniture?made?by?
 Chippendale?and?Riesener.?
 ?
 There?are?several?criticisms?that?could?be?levelled?against?these?comparisons.??First,?
 as?already?mentioned,?they?are?limited?by?number?of?samples?but?this?could?not?be?
 helped?as?many?useful?pieces?made?by?these?two?makers?were?not?available?for?
 viewing.??Second,??in?an?ideal??world?one?would?include?comparisons?to?furniture?
 made?by?other?furniture?makers?in?order?more?clearly?isolate?those?characteristics?
 that?identify?either?Chippendale?or?Riesener.9??However?this?too?lay?well?beyond?the?
 reach?of?this?project.??In?this?sense,?the?value?of?the?thesis?lies?in?the?template?it?has?
 established?and?the?methodology?that?underpins?it.???
 ?
 ? Another?issue?that?emerged?in?the?course?of?the?research?journey?was?to?do?with?
 resources.?In?particular?there?were?elements?of?the?scientific?analysis?that?could?not?
 be?undertaken?because?of?lack?of?equipment?and/or?financial?support?which?limited?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 6?In?the?known?cases,?the?pieces?were?privately?owned?and?not?available?for?close?inspections.???Those?cases?
 that?were?unknown,?the?pieces?are?either?missing/destroyed?or,?again,?privately?owned?and?have?never?
 become?available?through?a?major?auction?house.??
 7?There?was?also?two?dressing?tables?and?two?pieces?which?Chippendale?called??lady?s??secretary??which?were?
 studied?or?had?very?detailed?file?notes?on?them.???
 8?There?were?a?total?of?four?other?pieces?by?Chippendale?and?18?other?Riesener?pieces?that?were?identified?but?
 not?included?in?the?detailed?investigation.??
 9?For?example,?if?there?were?several?English?cabinetmakers?included,?we?could?clearly?identify?what?
 characteristics?were??English??and?which?were?Chippendale.??
?
 MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?VI???Final?Thoughts?&?Conclusions? ???Page?339?
 (for?example)?research?around?the?dyes?and?glues?used?on?the?case?study?pieces?as?
 well?as?the?constituents?of?the?surface?treatment.10?
 ?
 ? Photographing?evidence?also?proved?problematical.??In?no?case?was?it?possible?for?the?
 furniture?at?issue?to?be?removed?to?a?light?controlled?area?where?the?furniture?could?
 be?taken?apart?and?photographed?and?documented?in?an?orderly?fashion.??Research?
 had?to?be?conducted?around?museum?opening?times?or?in?situ???and?most?often?
 without?assistance.??While?museum?staff?were?always?helpful?as?they?could?be,?they?
 (and?in?turn?this?author)?had?to?work?to?the?demands?of?the?situation?and?
 organisational?guidelines.??On?reflection,?no?doubt?some?of?these?problems?could?
 have?been?overcome?by?better?planning?and?this?author?will?approach?subsequent?
 work?in?a?more?consistent?way???see?below.?
 ?
 C.? Findings???
 ?
 What?follows?here?is?a?discussion?of?the?findings?from?this?research???firstly?around?the?
 outcomes?of?the?case?study?and?then?more?broadly?in?consideration?of?wider?cultural?issues.??
 Following?this?will?be?a?listing?of?the?different?characteristics?that?can?be?used?to?identify?
 these?two?makers.??
 ?
 In?Chapter?1?(p.?25),?the?development?of?the?case?study?was?discussed,?showing?how?the?
 Chippendale?and?Riesener?pieces?were?selected?because?they?represented?fashionable?icons?
 within?their?respective?cultures.11?Few?would?argue?that?the?secr?taire???abattant?is?a?more?
 feminine?piece?than?its?English?counterpart,?which?(arguably)?might?in?turn?suggest?that?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 10?In?all?likelihood?most?of?these?pieces?of?furniture?would?have?been?restored?or?conserved?at?some?time?in?
 their?history.??This?is?evidenced?by?the?fact?that?all?of?these?pieces?appear?to?be?covered?in?shellac?when?all?of?
 the?literature?suggests?that?shellac?was?one?surface?coating?that?was?rarely?used?during?this?period?(in?England?
 it?was?more?likely?to?have?been?protected?with?a?type?of?resin?varnish?and?in?France?it?was?more?likely?to?have?
 been?wax?(this?was?discussed?in?greater?detail?in?Chapter?5???starting?on?p.?295.)?
 11?There?were?very?few?library?tables?produced?in?France?and?there?were?very?few?secr?taire???abattants?
 produced?in?England?during?this?time.???
?
 MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?VI???Final?Thoughts?&?Conclusions? ???Page?340?
 France?was?more?influenced?by?the?feminine?side?of?society.?However,?it?could?just?as?easily?
 imply?that?there?was?a?greater?desire?for?more?open?rooms.12?
 ?
 On?the?Harewood?Library?Table?(as?on?many?other?Chippendale?Library?Tables)?there?is?a?
 large?drawer?designed?to?hold?architectural?drawings.??None?of?the?secr?taire???abattants?
 offered?such?a?feature,?suggesting?(perhaps)?a?greater?interest?in?architectural?matters?
 amongst?the?English?aristocrats?than?the?French?Royal?household.13??Another?feature?that?
 differentiated?the?furniture?lay?in?their?respective?locks.??In?France,?there?was?much?greater?
 emphasis?on?locks?although?Riesener?s?F302?actually?had?much?simpler?locks?than?most?of?
 his?secr?taire???abattant.?But?even?this?relatively?simple?lock?was?far?more?complicated?than?
 the?locks?on?the?Chippendale?Library?Table.??While?Riesener?used?a?double?bolt,?double?
 throw?lock?for?the?fall?front,?a?separate?spring?loaded?lock?in?the?lower?section,?and?a?third?
 single?bolt?lock?for?the?safe?located?in?the?lower?section,?on?the?Chippendale?piece?one?key?
 was?enough?to?open?all?of?its?simple?single?bolt,?single?throw?locks.??There?were?no??safes??or?
 secret?compartments?in?the?Harewood?Library?Table???nor?in?any?of?the?other?Chippendale?
 Library?Tables.??The?locks?that?Chippendale?used?were?very?simple?ward?locks?of?a?poorer?
 quality?of?the?metal?than?that?used?in?Riesener?s?locks,?all?of?which?strongly?suggests?a?
 greater?perceived?need?for?security?in?France?than?England.?14??C.?Sargentson?s?work?would?
 seem?to?confirm?this?need?for?security.?15?
 ?
 The?C18th?saw?wide?ranging?changes?across?the?social?and?political?sphere.?As?this?thesis?
 shows,?fashionable?furniture?provides?further?insight?into?(and?evidence?of)?these?changes.??
 As?discussed?earlier,?these?two?makers?reflected?many?cultural?changes?such?as?the?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 12?This?is?supported?by?the?suggestion?that?Marie?Antoinette,?the?original?owner?of?F302?requested?this?
 secr?taire???abattant?for?her?space?in?Versailles?in?order?to?replace?a?larger?more?imposing?model???making?this?
 argument?more?relevant?(File?notes?from?The?Wallace?Collection?files?on?F302,?accessed?in?01/2010).??
 13?It?is?probably?safe?to?assume?that?this?held?true?for?other?members?of?the?French?elite,?as?this?feature?does?
 not?appear?to?be?on?any?of?the?major?types?of?writing?furniture.??While?it?is?likely?that?some?do?have?this?
 feature,?five?of?the?six?Chippendale?pieces?that?were?studied?in?detail?had?either?a?large?drawer?for?drawings?or?
 the?combination?of?a?large?drawer?and?a?pull?out?drawing?table.???
 14?This?is?based?on?the?condition?of?the?metals?as?the?metals?and?the?movements?of?the?locks.?The?locks?on?the?
 Riesener?piece?appear?shinier?and?with?less?corrosion?than?the?Chippendale?piece?and?the?mechanism?is?
 smoother?in?its?operation.??Of?course?this?could?be?the?result?of?care?received?after?the?pieces?were?made,?or?
 the?weather?conditions?or?a?number?of?other?possible?factors.??
 15?Sargentson,?C.,?Looking?at?Furniture?Inside?Out:??Strategies?of?Secrecy?and?Security?in?Eighteenth?Century?
 French?Furniture,?found?in?Goodman,?D.?&?Norberg,?K.?(eds),?Furnishing?the?Eighteenth?Century:?What?
 Furniture?Can?Tell?us?about?the?European?and?American?Past,?Routledge,?London,?2007,?PP?205?237.?
?
 MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?VI???Final?Thoughts?&?Conclusions? ???Page?341?
 application?of?the?Neo?Classical?design?approach,?the?interest?in?reading?and?communicating?
 by?the?fact?that?these?pieces?of??fashionable?furniture??were?designed?for?writing?and?storing?
 of?information?and?the?relative?level?of?security?on?these?pieces,?etc.??Thus,?in?many?ways?
 these?two?makers?did?reflect?these?changes?in?many?ways,?the?thesis?also?shows,?however,?
 that?Chippendale?and?Riesener?were?in?some?ways?not?representative?of?their?field.??For?
 example?neither?made?use?of?the?new?trends?in?making?shopping?a?fashionable?activity.???
 ?
 What?do?we?learn?about?fashionable?furniture?in?C18th?England?and?France?from?all?of?the?
 above??We?learn?that?shopping?was?an?activity?reshaping?the?cultural?stage.?Shops?
 advertised?their?wares,?they?set?up?displays?and?a?new?breed?of?sales?staff?helped?a?new?
 breed?of?customer?make?their?selections?and?more?furniture?sellers?in?both?England?and?
 France?were?devising?new?ways?to?promote?their?services?and?products?to?potential?buyers.??
 Saying?this,?neither?Chippendale?nor?Riesener?seemed?to?have?had?an?actual?storefront?and?
 both?specialized?in?high?quality?work?for?a?limited?client?base.16?While?both?businesses?
 prospered,?they?operated?in?entirely?different?ways.?Riesener?produced?large?volumes?of?
 innovative?cabinet?or?case?furniture?(containing?new?locking?devices,?mechanical?
 movements?to?tables,?an?unusual?configuration?of?drawers?or?shelves,?etc.??Chippendale,?on?
 the?other?hand,?grew?his?business?by?offering?a?variety?of?services?to?his?clients?in?addition?to?
 cabinetmaking;?such?as?upholstery?and?soft?furnishings?such?as?curtains?and?bedding?etc..??
 While?Riesener?specialized?(arguably)?Chippendale?generalized.?
 ?
 Like?other?furniture?makers?who?offered?their?products?to?others,?both?Chippendale?and?
 Riesener?did?actively??market??themselves,?although?Chippendale?s?efforts?were?much?more?
 advanced?in?this?respect,?particularly?in?the?publication?of?a?Director?which?served?to?
 establish?Chippendale?s?reputation?for?high?end?fashionable?furniture.?Riesener?on?the?other?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 16?Please?note?that??normal??in?this?case?is?referring?to?other?fashionable?furniture?makers.?As?with?any?market,?
 there?were?apparently?different?layers?to?the?furniture?trade?during?this?period.??In?France,?this?refers?to?the?
 furniture?produces?and?sold?by?other?guild?members?this?of?course?included?the?Merchard?Merciers?and?in?
 England?this?includes?those?high?end?furniture?makers?such?as?William?Ince?and?John?Mayhew,?John?Linnell,?
 William?France,?Matthias?Lock,?etc.??There?were?probably?in?both?countries,?furniture?makers?who?produced?
 furniture?that?was?affordable?to?a?part?of?the?population?that?could?not?afford?furniture?by?these?makers,?
 however?that?is?not?part?of?this?research.??
?
 MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?VI???Final?Thoughts?&?Conclusions? ???Page?342?
 hand,?used?his?skills?to?produce?the?kind?of?virtuoso?work?that?would?secure?the?patronage?
 of?the?French?crown.17?
 ?
 The?thesis?hypothesized?that?both?Chippendale?and?Riesener?can?be?seen?to?adopt?many?of?
 the?strategies?that?relate?to?the?furniture?making?business?today,?although?neither?(like?the?
 rest?of?the?furniture?field)?were?employing?the?kind?of?machinery?associated?with?mass?
 production?techniques.?For?example:?
 ?
 ? Both?cabinetmakers?were?very?consistent?in?terms?of?the?excellence?of?construction?
 and?the?the?quality?of?materials?used?in?making?their?furniture;?high?standards?and?
 close?supervision?were?clearly?the?order?of?the?day.??
 ?
 ? Regarding?the?above,?there?was?little?consistency?in?the?thickness?of?the?wood?or?in?
 the?exact?sizes?of?the?furniture?or?the?sections?of?furniture?across?different?pieces.??
 This?suggests?that?neither?of?these?two?shops?would?(for?example)?plane?a?large?
 selection?of?timber?to?be?used?for?drawer?sides?or?bottoms?over?an?extended?period?
 of?time?nor?did?they?set?absolute?standards?for?this?particular?characteristic.?And?
 while?we?know?that?in?the?early?C19th?the?French?cabinetmakers?at?least?started?to?
 put?their?marquetry?work?into?packets???in?order?to?cut?multiple?copies?of?the?same?
 patterns?at?the?same?time???this?does?not?appear?to?have?been?the?case?in?either?
 Chippendale?or?Riesener?s?workshop.???
 ?
 ? Both?cabinetmakers?showed?a?preference?for?Neo?Classical?design.??Chippendale?set?
 out?this?vision?in?his?Director?of?course,?while?Riesener?s?preference?can?be?read?from?
 the?furniture?that?emerged?from?his?workshop.??
 ?
 The?fact?that?there?were?so?many?differences?in?the?measurements?of?the?pieces?made?by?
 these?two?cabinetmakers?supports?a?conclusion?that?was?suggested?by?the?research?
 elsewhere?in?this?thesis???that?much?of?the?work?undertaken?by?these?cabinetmakers?was?
 bespoke.??We?know?from?the?literature?that?both?Chippendale?and?Riesener?used?to?visit?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 17?Recall?this?is?the?creation?of?the?Bureau?du?Roi?for?King?Louis?XVI?that?was?completed?in?1769.??
?
 MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?VI???Final?Thoughts?&?Conclusions? ???Page?343?
 their?clients?to?discuss?their?requirements?and?to?take?measurements.?The?fact?that?the?
 pieces?examined?in?this?thesis?vary?so?much?in?their?overall?measurements?suggests?this.??
 ?
 Regarding?the?concept?of??good?working?practice?,?as?mentioned?earlier,?there?was?a?
 hypothesis?suggested?to?this?author?that?the?French?were?good?at?producing?wonderful?
 looking?pieces?but?English?produced?furniture?of?workmanship.??That?proved?(on?close?
 inspection)?to?be?completely?false.??While?in?all?cases?where?the?provenance?of?the?piece?
 was?known,?the?pieces?were?equally?of?the?highest?quality,?both?in?terms?of?the?
 craftsmanship?and?in?the?materials?used;?whether?by?Chippendale?or?by?Riesener.??In?the?few?
 pieces?where?the?quality?seemed?questionable,?the?provenance?was?weak?and?the?
 attribution?was?debatable.??
 ?
 The?design?of?the?case?study?pieces?at?issue?also?speaks?to?the?culture?in?which?they?were?
 produced.??In?both?cases,?there?were?elements?in?their?design?that?related?to?the?rooms?in?
 which?the?furniture?was?to?be?placed.??Both?designs?reflect?the?changing?fashions???moving?
 from?Rococo?to?the?Neo?Classical,?following?the?lead?provided?by?architects?in?this?area.??It?is?
 also?interesting?to?note?that?while?Chippendale?had?previously?been?known?for?furniture?
 with?little?marquetry?or?ormolu,?the?Harewood?Library?Table?was?just?the?opposite,?moving?
 toward?the?French?look.???Riesener,?on?the?other?hand,?was?known?for?his?elaborate?
 marquetry?designs?and?ormolu?used?in?secr?taire???abattant?F302?using?a?simple?repeated?
 design???suggested?a?move?toward?simpler?designs.??This?could?reflect?the?mutual?cultural?
 exchange?between?the?societies?of?England?and?France?that?was?evidenced?within?this?
 thesis.??
 ?
 As?noted?above,?comparative?data?was?vital?to?animating?the?key?characteristics?of?the?
 fashionable?furniture?of?England?and?France?in?the?age?of?elegance.?A?summary?of?the?key?
 characteristics?of?Chippendale?s?library?tables?and?Riesener?s?secr?taire???abattants?are?
 represented?by?the?table?below.?
 ??
 ?
?
 MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?VI???Final?Thoughts?&?Conclusions? ???Page?344?
 Table?6?1?
 Summary?of?Key?Characteristics??
 Chippendale?s?Library?Tables?and?Riesener?s?Secr?taire???Abattant??
 ? Chippendales?Library?Tables? Riesener?s?Secr?taire???Abattant?
 Overall?Characteristics?
 Overall?
 Measurements?
 ? All?of?the?tables?were?of?different?sizes?on?
 depth?and?width,?but?the?height?was?similar?
 for?all?(average?of?80?cms)?and?there?were?
 consistencies?such?as?the?top?drawer?
 section?that?was?always?slightly?over?15?
 cms.???The?height?of?the?feet?or?plinth?and?
 the?pedestal?were?also?consistent.??
 ? While?there?was?a?number?of?Riesener?
 secr?taire???abattants?that?were?similar?
 in?size,?all?were?slightly?different?(about?
 7?were?the?same?height???about?144?cm?
 in?height?and?of?these?about??
 Structural?
 Woods?Used?
 ? The?primary?woods?used?for?construction?of?
 Chippendale?s?tables?were?Oak,??deal18??and?
 occasionally?mahogany?for?things?such?as?
 the?drawer?front.??
 ? In?all?cases?(except?1)?the?wood?used?was?of?
 the?highest?standard;?all?were?quarter?
 sawn,?straight?grain?with?very?few?knots.??
 ? The?primary?wood?used?for?the?
 construction?of?secr?taire???abattant?of?
 Riesener?s?was?Oak,?with?the?occasion?
 use?of?mahogany?for?drawer?fronts.??
 ? In?all?cases?(except?1)?the?quality?of?the?
 wood?used?was?of?the?highest?standard;?
 all?were?quarter?sawn,?straight?grain,?
 and?had?very?few?knots.?
 Decorative?
 woods?
 ? The?veneers?that?were?used?for?
 Chippendales?Library?Tables?were?generally?
 very?simple?applications?of?mahogany.??The?
 only?two?exceptions?to?this?were?the?
 Harewood?pieces,?which?used?holly,?
 rosewood,?satinwood?and?tulipwood?as?well?
 as?a?number?of?dyes.??
 ? The?opposite?could?be?said?of?Riesener,?
 in?general,?Riesener?used?a?variety?of?as?
 his?pieces,?historically,?used?a?wide?
 variety?of?veneers?to?decorate?his?
 secr?taire???abattants.??However,?his?
 workshop?used?a?much?simpler?design?
 on?F302?and?in?many?of?his?later?pieces,?
 he?used?solid?woods?veneers,?similar?to?
 the?approach?by?Chippendale.??(On?
 F302,?Riesener?was?believed?to?have?
 used?Satane,?Purplewood,?some?kind?of?
 fruitwood?(apple,?pear,?etc.),?Barberry,?
 Holly,?Tulipwood,?Ebony,?Boxwood,?
 Walnut?and?Sycamore.)?
 Structural?
 Design?
 ? The?basic?design?of?the?Harewood?Library?
 Table?was?what?was?labelled?in?Chapter?5?as?
 Version?A???The?Complete?Top?Drawer?
 design19.??This?was?one?of?two?that?were?
 used?by?Chippendale.??The?top?drawer?was?
 used?primarily?when?there?was?a?drawing?
 table?embedded?in?one?side.?
 ? The?key?characteristics?of?this?design?is?that?
 the?top?rests?on?a?structure?that?stretches?
 across?the?width?and?depth?of?the?table?and?
 containing?the?centre?drawing?drawer?and?
 four?corner?drawers.??Below?this?are?two?
 matching?pedestals?that?rest?upon?plinths.???
 ? The?basic?design?for?this?table?was?also?used?
 by?Chippendale?for?the?solid?mahogany?
 Library?Table?at?Nostell?Priory.???The?
 differences?were?that?the?Nostell?Priory?
 Library?Table?used?feet?and?not?a?plinth?as?a?
 ? The?design?of?the?Trellis?marquetry?
 secr?taire???abattant??(F302)?was?very?
 similar?to?the?standard?secr?taire???
 abattant?design?that?Riesener?used?
 throughout?his?career.??The?general?
 characteristics?of?this?model?were?the?
 cantered?corners,?the?bracket?feet,?the?
 two?sections?(lower?storage?section?and?
 the?upper?fall?front?section)?and?marble?
 top?with?ormolu?gallery.???
 ? Inner?structure?was?of?three?separate?
 sections???a??box??in?the?lower?section,?
 another?box?in?the?top?section?(behind?
 the?fall?front)?and?a?rectangular?section?
 for?the?top?drawer.??All?of?this?was?
 enclosed?with?an?outer?shell?and?sat?on?
 a?stand?with?bracket?feet.???
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 18?As?mentioned?before?this?was?either?pine,?fir?or?spruce?all?of?which?generally?came?from?northern?Europe.??
 19?See?Chapter?V.?p.?202?for?a?detailed?explanation.??
?
 MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?VI???Final?Thoughts?&?Conclusions? ???Page?345?
 Table?6?1?
 Summary?of?Key?Characteristics??
 Chippendale?s?Library?Tables?and?Riesener?s?Secr?taire???Abattant??
 ? Chippendales?Library?Tables? Riesener?s?Secr?taire???Abattant?
 base;?the?surface?was?decorated?with?
 carved?ornaments?and?mahogany?veneer?
 and?was?not?covered?in?marquetry.?
 Detailed?Characteristics?
 Drawer?
 Construction?
 ? Front?dovetails?were?long?and?slender.??
 Also,?the?thickness?of?the?wood?in?front?of?
 the?drawer?was?about?7mm.?
 ? The?back?dovetails?were?short?and?squatty.?
 ? With?the?grain?running?from?side?to?side,?
 the?bottom?was?placed?in?a?rebate?then?
 pinned?in?with?a?piece?of?wood?to?act?as?a?
 runner?for?the?bottom.??
 ? The?dovetails?on?the?drawer?front?were?
 shorter?and?wider?than?Chippendale?s.??
 ? The?back?dovetails?were?similar?to?that?
 of?Chippendales.??
 ? Also?with?the?grain?running?from?side?to?
 side,?the?bottom?slid?along?small?rebates?
 entering?from?the?back?of?the?drawer.?
 ? The?drawer?bottom?usually?had?a?small?
 curved?rebate?cut?into?the?bottom.????
 Drawer?Cavity?
 Construction?
 ? ?The?drawer?cavities?had?oak?runners?on?
 either?side?of?the?cavity.??
 ? The?drawers?were?stopped?by?small?
 hexagonal?pieces?of?oak.?
 ? The?drawer?for?the?large?drawers?
 cavities?usually?had?oak?runners?on?
 either?side?of?the?drawers?but?the?
 smaller?drawers?did?not?have?runners.??
 ? Often?small?strips?of?amaranth?acted?to?
 protect?the?sides?of?the?drawer?cavity.??
 Locks? ? Chippendale?in?general?used?very?simple?
 ward?locks?on?all?of?his?furniture.??The?locks?
 had?a?single?rectangular?bolt,?it?is?fully?
 extended?on?one?turn,?and?the?same?key?
 worked?all?of?the?locks?on?a?single?piece?of?
 furniture.?
 ? The?one?exception?to?this?was?the?Nostell?
 Priory?Library?Table?that?used?a?very?
 unusual?(for?Chippendale)?S?shaped?key?and?
 had,?on?the?pedestal?doors,?locks?that?were?
 located?in?the?centre?of?the?door.???
 ? Riesener?tended?to?use?very?
 complicated?locking?systems.?Nearly?all?
 secr?taire???abattants?had?three?
 different?keys.???The?top?drawer?was?
 usually?locked?with?the?mechanism?on?
 the?fall?front.??This?lock?usually?had?two?
 bolts?and?required?at?least?two?turns?to?
 lock?the?fall?front?and?the?top?drawer.??
 Frequently?there?were?bolts?extending?
 to?each?side?as?well?as?to?the?top.??On?
 occasion,?there?was?also?a?bolt?that?
 opened?a?secret?compartment?amongst?
 the?drawers?in?the?top?section.?There?
 was?usually?a?safe?in?the?lower?section?
 and?frequently?it?was?disguised?as?two?
 drawers.??The?lower?cabinet?usually?had?
 a?spring?loaded?lock.??
 Other?
 Constructional?
 Characteristics?
 ? ?Chippendale?usually?used?a?plinth?to?stand?
 the?two?pedestals?of?his?library?tables?onto?
 instead?of?individual?feet?(he?only?used?feet?
 on?one?example???the?Nostell?Priory?Library?
 Table)?
 ? Chippendale?s?Library?tables?frequently?had?
 two?sides?to?them;?differing?on?the?internal?
 features?of?the?pedestals.??On?the?front?side?
 the?pedestals?usually?contained?three?
 drawers.??On?the?backside?they?contained?
 slots?for?files.?
 ?
 ? The?backs?of?Riesener?s?secr?taire???
 abattant?were?constructed?of?panels?
 that?slide?into?place?from?the?bottom?
 and?were?screwed?in?at?the?bottom.?
 ? The?Lower?cabinet?doors?were?
 frequently?closed?with?spring?loaded?
 locks?and?used?a??tongue?and?groove??
 joint?to?secure?their?attachment?
 ? The?feet?on?Riesener?s?secr?taire???
 abattant?were?virtually?always?very?
 simple?bracket?feet?that?mirrored?the?
 canted?angle?of?the?rest?of?the?furniture.??
 Design? ? As?mentioned?before?most?library?tables? ? All?of?the?design?elements?that?were?
?
 MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?VI???Final?Thoughts?&?Conclusions? ???Page?346?
 Table?6?1?
 Summary?of?Key?Characteristics??
 Chippendale?s?Library?Tables?and?Riesener?s?Secr?taire???Abattant??
 ? Chippendales?Library?Tables? Riesener?s?Secr?taire???Abattant?
 Elements?? were?custom?designed?(even?though?the?
 general?patterns?could?be?identified?in?the?
 Director.)??This?usually?meant?that?the?
 design?elements?were?also?frequently?
 custom?designed?to?match?the?surrounding?
 area???some?however?were?very?simple?
 with?only?slight?embellishments.??
 ? The?Harewood?Table?was?decorated?much?
 differently?from?other?tables.??In?most?
 cases,?the?decoration?was?fairly?simple.??In?
 the?case?of?the?Harewood?table?there?is?
 extensive?use?of?ormolu,?marquetry?of?
 Classically?(Adam)?inspired?design?elements,?
 many?of?which?were?also?used?in?the?room?
 where?the?piece?was?originally?located.??
 ? The?design?was?similar?to?that?used?in?the?
 Nostell?Priory?Library?Table?and?one?that?
 appeared?in?Chippendale?s?Director.??
 used?on?F302?could?be?found?on?other?
 Riesener?pieces.??The?flowered?trellis?
 design?was?found?on?several?cabinets?
 and?commodes,?the?detailed?floral?
 ormolu?was?found?on?many?of?
 Riesener?s?later?pieces?of?both?secr?taire?
 ??abattants,?commodes?and?corner?
 cabinets.??
 ? Riesener?was?known?to?have?executed?
 both?simpler?and?more?complicated?
 designs?as?what?was?used?on?this?
 particular?piece.??
 Features?? All?of?these?features?were?common?on?
 Chippendale?s?Library?Tables:??
 ? A?large?drawer?to?hold?architectural?
 drawings?that?locked.?
 ? A?pull?out?drawing?table?that?the?user?could?
 adjust?both?the?height?and?angle?to?suit?
 their?needs.??This?was?disguised?as?a?drawer?
 emanating?from?one?side?of?the?table.??
 ? Locks?on?all?four?pedestal?doors.??
 ? The?ability?to?use?the?table?from?both?sides,?
 with?two?sets?of?drawers?in?the?pedestals?
 on?the?front?and?two?sets?of?file?dividers?in?
 the?pedestals?on?the?back.?
 ? Top?drawers?with?locks?on?each?corner?
 (when?there?was?no?drawing?stand).??
 These?features?were?common?on?
 Riesener?s?Secr?taire???abattants:??
 ? Separate?keys?for?the?top,?bottom?and?
 the?safe.?
 ? A?safe?in?the?lower?section.??
 ? A?top?drawer?that?stretched?across?the?
 top?section,?above?the?fall?front.??
 ? A?marble?top.??
 Design?
 Elements?
 ? Chippendale?custom?designed?his?Library?
 tables?to?fit?the?room?that?it?was?to?be?
 placed.??Many?times?this?included?adding?
 decorative?elements?that?reflected?the?
 decorations?in?the?room.?Two?key?examples?
 of?this?were?the?Harewood?Library?Table?
 and?the?Nostell?Priory?Library?Table.??(See?
 Chapter?Five,?pp.?231?232)?
 ? On?the?Harewood?Library?Table,?
 Chippendale?made?use?of?extensive?
 marquetry,?dyed?veneers,?and?ormolu.???
 ? ?As?with?Chippendale,?Riesener?custom?
 sized?and?decorated?the?pieces?to?fit?the?
 situation?where?the?secr?taire???
 abattant?was?to?be?placed.??Furniture?
 had?some?of?the?decorative?elements?
 used?in?the?room?on?the?furniture?itself,?
 plus?the?size?and?shapes?of?the?pieces?
 were?custom?designed?for?the?situation.??
 ?
 ?
?
 MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?VI???Final?Thoughts?&?Conclusions? ???Page?347?
 D? Contributions?to?Knowledge?
 ??
 As?can?be?seen?from?the?table?above,?this?thesis?has?attempted?to?develop?a?useful?template?
 to?identify?the?work?of?two?important?C18th?cabinetmakers???Chippendale?&?Riesener.??
 While?additional?research?is?needed,?this?thesis?has?developed?data?that?should?help?in?the?
 identification?of?furniture?produced?by?these?two?figures?and?so?contribute?to?knowledge?
 within?the?field.??One?proof?of?the?usefulness?of?this?data?emerged?around?attributed?pieces?
 examined?in?the?course?of?research?that?failed?to?convince?this?author?of?their?authenticity.??
 ?
 As?part?of?this?process,?one?of?the?outcomes?was?to?produce?the?beginnings?of?a?database?
 that?would?be?used?to?catalogue?pieces?of?furniture?in?subsequent?research.??If?for?example?
 this?were?to?set?a?standard?for?the?field,?this?work?could?be?combined?with?that?developed?
 by?others?to?set?up?a?useful?and?authoritative?system?for?cataloguing?furniture?made?by?
 different?makers.?While?the?database?assembled?in?this?thesis?around?the?work?of?
 Chippendale?and?Riesener?represents?a?start,?it?is?clear?that?many?further?revisions?and?
 additions?will?have?to?be?made?in?order?to?complete?the?data?base?and?provide?a?useful?
 vehicle?for?collectors,?dealers,?auction?houses?and?museum?personnel?as?well?as?scholars?
 interested?in?material?and?design?history.??
 ?
 One?might?ask?why?we?should?study?furniture?or?analyse?the?way?that?furniture?is?made.??
 The?answer?to?this?is?complicated.??At?the?practical?level,?this?detailed?study?of?the?creation?
 of?fashionable?furniture?will?enable?museums,?auction?houses?and?individual?collectors?to?
 better?understand?the?products?they?own.??One?will?see?that?as?the?result?of?the?detailed?
 analysis?offered?by?this?thesis,?the?identification?of?both?Chippendale?and?Riesener?furniture?
 is?much?closer?to?being?a?science?as?opposed?to?an?art,?as?was?often?suggested?in?early?
 interviews.20???This?more?systematic?and?rigorous?approach?in?this?thesis?provides?a?clear?and?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 20?There?are?two?points?that?should?be?made?here.??First?of?all?the?use?of?these?two?terms??art??and??science??
 should?be?considered.??By?the?use?of?these?terms?I?am?referring?to?the?earlier?discussion?of?the?response?to?my?
 initial?inquiries?into?this?area?of?study.??Like?the?field?of?conservation?itself,?in?the?past,?it?has?been?steeped?with?
 secret?formulas,?and?methods?that?were?not?discussed?in?open?forums.??As?a?result?the?act?of?identifying?a?
 particular?maker?of?a?piece?of?furniture?was?more?of?a?personal?judgment?based?on?general?impressions?and?
 individual?beliefs.??Conclusions?are?based?solely?on?the?documentation,?the?style?of?the?piece?(relative?to?
 pictures?of?other?similar?pieces)?overlaid?with?the?personal?experience?of?the?evaluator???the??art??of?
 identification.??I?propose?here?that?the??artistic??component?should?be?replaced?by?a?more?rigorous?approach.??
?
 MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?VI???Final?Thoughts?&?Conclusions? ???Page?348?
 objective?data?which?will?help?any?professional?identify?with?a?great?deal?more?certainty?
 whether?(or?not)?a?particular?piece?of?furniture?was?made?either?Chippendale?or?Riesener.??It?
 also?offers?a?model?which?could?(by?extension)?be?developed?to?identify?the?work?of?
 cabinetmakers?from?other?countries?and?different?time?periods.???The?information?tabled?
 here?should?also?aide?in?the?conservation?of?furniture?made?by?these?two?makers???in?that?
 the?conservator?will?be?better?informed?as?to?what?the?original?cabinetmaker?made?use?of?in?
 the?way?of?materials?or?intended?to?express?through?his?furniture.?It?may?also?prove?useful?in?
 guiding?certain?forms?of?testing?and?evaluation?(e.g.?what?types?of?dye?would?expect?to?see?
 employed?on?a?particular?piece?of?furniture)?and?thus?potentially?save?both?time?and?money.???
 ?
 There?is?also?a?much?broader?and?ultimately?much?more?important?reasons?for?studying?
 furniture?design.??As?Fleming?notes:???
 ?
 ?To?known?man?we?must21?study?the?things?he?has?made???the?Parthenon,?the?
 Panama?Canal,?Stonehenge,?the?computer,?the?Taj?Mahal,?the?space?capsule,?
 Michelangelo?s?Piet?,?the?highway?cloverleaf,?the?Great?Pyramid,?Rembrandt?s?self?
 portraits.??The?artifacts?made?and?used?by?a?people?are?not?only?a?basic?expression?of?
 that?people;?they?are,?like?culture?itself,?a?necessary?means?of?man?s?self?
 fulfillment.?22??
 ?
 While?this?list?contains?only?grander?examples?of?art,?architecture?and?technical?
 advancements,?Fleming?goes?on?to?insist?that?the?inclusion?of?all?cultural?materials?is?vital.??
 This?thesis?contributes?to?knowledge?in?demonstrating?how?the?study?of?furniture?can?
 provide?just?such?meaningful?insight?into?how?culture?develops,?highlighting?interesting?
 cultural?differences?between?England?and?France,?particularly?in?terms?of?fashion?and?its?
 ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 By?comparing?the?constructional?elements?of?a?piece?to?known?examples?as?a?replacement?for?professional?
 judgments?in?combination?with?the?review?of?documentation?and?historical?reviews,?one?can?be?more?assured?
 of?the?final?decision?than?with?personal?or?professional??judgment?.???This?process,?of?course,?depends?on?both?
 money,?the?ability?to?conduct?certain?tests?or?observations?and?the?availability?of?prior?studies.??Further,?it?will?
 never?be?a?process?that?is?completely?devoid?of?professional?or?personal?judgment,?but?what?is?proposed?here?
 is?that?it?will?gradually?be?reduced?by?the?move?toward?more?objective,?observational????scientific??methods.??
 21?Italics?are?mine?for?emphasis,?the?quote?came?from:??Fleming,?E.,?1974,?Artifact?Study:??A?Proposed?Model,?
 The?Winterthur?Portfolio,?Vol.?9,?p.?153.?
 22Fleming,?E.,?1974,?Artifact?Study:??A?Proposed?Model,?pp..?153?173.??
?
 MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?VI???Final?Thoughts?&?Conclusions? ???Page?349?
 impact?upon?furniture.?This?also?represents?a?distinct?contribution?to?knowledge?in?the?field?
 for?those?academics?interested?in?material?culture?and?C18th?fashion.??
 ???
 One?outcome?of?this?research?is?to?set?up?a?model?for?the?collection?and?synthesis?of?data?
 from?other?pieces?of?furniture?and?to?therefore?begin?the?process?of?actually?setting?up?a?
 database?into?which?the?information?could?be?inputted?in?some?kind?of?standard?way.??The?
 following?table?is?such?a?generalized?approach.??One?pivotal?point?in?the?setting?up?this?
 database?is?the?basic?structure?of?the?piece,?which?is?defined?in?the?Structural?Design?section?
 of?this?model.??This?basic?structure?will?define?precisely?what?measurements?are?to?be?taken?
 (for?example?with?the?Library?Table?one?question?that?needs?to?be?addressed?is?how?to?
 measure?the?height?of?the?pedestals).??It?is?in?this??basic?structure??one?defines,?for?example,?
 how?many?drawers?are?to?be?measured,?and?how?many?cabinet?doors?need?to?be?measured?
 and?the?location?of?both?sets?of?characteristics.???One?important?ambition?is?to?take?the?
 finally?determined?measurements?on?as?many?examples?of?these?pieces?of?furniture?as?
 possible?as?it?will?aid?in?the?analysis?which?is?outlined?immediately?following?this?Data?
 Collection?Model.??
 ?
 The?following?table?details?the?information?that?will?be?needed?for?this?model.??
 ?
 Table?6?2?
 Data?Collection?Model?
 Area?of?Inquiry?
 ? Specific?Questions?Asked? Comments?
 General?Description?
 ? ? Outstanding?Features.?
 ? Type?and?function?of?furniture.??
 ? Reasons?for?importance.?
 ? General?description?of?decorative?style.?
 ? Key?features.?
 ?
 ? Include?pictures?showing?overview?and?each?of?
 the?decorative?features?mentioned.?
 Historical?Context?(provenance)??
 ? ? Summary?of?History?of?the?piece.?
 o Who?was?the?original?owner???
 o Reasons?for?its?production.?
 o Whose?workshop?produced?this?piece??
 ?
 ? Note?any?documentation?(both?primary?and?
 secondary?sources)?supporting?its?history.?
 ?
 Historical?Context?(Key?events?and?fashions?of?the?time)?
 ? ? Discuss?any?key?events?or?tends?that?may?
 impact?the?design?or?the?making?of?the?piece?of?
 ? Were?there?any?key?fashions?that?impacted?
 how?this?piece?was?made???
?
 MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?VI???Final?Thoughts?&?Conclusions? ???Page?350?
 Table?6?2?
 Data?Collection?Model?
 Area?of?Inquiry?
 ? Specific?Questions?Asked? Comments?
 furniture.? ? Were?there?any?political/social/military?
 events?that?affected?either?the?design?or?with?
 what?materials?were?used?to?produce?the?
 piece???
 ?
 Design?Features?
 ST
 YL
 E? ? General?design.??
 ? List?specific?design?elements?(e.g.,?any?
 Gadrooning,?acanthus?leaf?designs)?
 ? Discuss?any?inspirations?for?the?design?
 elements?(e.g.?Roman?or?Greek?designs)?
 ? Who?designed?the?piece?(Was?it?the?architect???
 A?furniture?maker??Or?other?)?
 ? If?known,?relate?this?piece?to?the?room?in?which?
 it?was?originally?made.??(e.g.,?What?design?
 elements?were?common?between?the?two?
 items?,?What?colours?were?used?on?the?piece?
 and?the?room?)?
 ? Describe?the?room?(e.g.,?its?size,?where?the?
 furniture?was?located)?
 ? List?the?decorative?elements?and?describe?how?
 each?of?the?decorative?elements?were?
 executed?(e.g.,?carving,?marquetry,?ormolu)?
 ?
 STRUCTURA
 L2
 3 ? ? Produce?a?drawing?of?the?overall?structure?
 (Note?this?structural??map??may?require?
 removal?of?cover?panels?to?define?the?actual?
 structure?and?joints?connecting?different?
 structural?elements.)?
 ? Draw?and?discuss?key?features?and?functions?of?
 the?piece?(e.g.,?drawers,?shelves,?special?
 locks,?safes,?etc.)
 24
 ??
 ? Use?the?overall?designs?to?guide?the?key?
 measurements?for?comparisons?to?similar?
 pieces???develop?the?measurement?table?based?
 on?these?drawings.?
 ? Identify?where?possible?the?joints?used?to?
 connect?different?structural?components.??
 ? Include?pictures?as?well?as?verbal?and?
 quantifiable?descriptions?of?each?key?feature.????
 ? Include?any?x?rays?of?joints?connecting?key?
 structural?elements.?
 ?
 Materials?used?in?Making?this?Piece?
 ? ? Structural?Woods???Identify?each?of?the?woods?
 used?in?the?structural?components?of?the?
 piece.?Include?the?materials?used?to?make?
 drawers,?shelves?as?well?as?supporting?
 materials.??
 ? Include?testing?(e.g.?d?dendrochronology)?and?
 any?microscopic?evidence?used?in?identifying?
 wood.?
 ? Speak?to?the?quality?of?the?wood?and?it?s?
 condition?(e.g.,?type?of?cut,?quality?of?the?grain,?
 how?well?it?has?maintained?its?shape)?
 ?
 ? ? Decorative?woods?and?related?material?
 (Identify?each?of?the?woods?that?visible?on?
 the?outside?of?the?piece.??This?includes?any?
 trim,?any?veneers?and?any?marquetry.??Of?
 course?if?any?non?wood?materials,?such?as?
 ? Include?testing?(e.g.?d?dendrochronology)?and?
 any?microscopic?evidence?used?in?identifying?
 wood.?
 ? Speak?to?the?quality?of?the?wood?and?it?s?
 condition?(e.g.,?type?of?cut,?quality?of?the?grain,?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 23?This?will?drive?much?of?the?research?that?will?follow.???
 24?Laser?scanning?techniques?would?be?the?most?accurate?approach?to?making?the?measurements,?however?an?
 understanding?of?the?structure?is?needed?before?finalizing?the?measures.?For?example,?one?needs?to?know?the?
 type?of?pedestal?that?is?used?on?a?particular?Library?Table?before?knowing?how?to?measure?the?height?of?the?
 pedestal.?See?K.?Cain,?Drawing?Accurate?Ground?Plans?from?Laser?Scan?Data,?Institute?for?the?Study?and?
 Integration?of?Graphical?Heritage?Techniques?(INSIGHT),?Web?site:?
 www.insightdigital.org/PDF%20papers/Plans.pdf?Accessed?28?December?2010,?for?an?application?of?this?
 technology?to?architectural?research.??
?
 MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?VI???Final?Thoughts?&?Conclusions? ???Page?351?
 Table?6?2?
 Data?Collection?Model?
 Area?of?Inquiry?
 ? Specific?Questions?Asked? Comments?
 shell,?turtle?shell,?or?mother?of?pearl,?it?
 should?be?noted.)?
 ?
 how?well?it?has?maintained?its?shape)?
 ? ? ?Metals?in?support?of?the?pieces?structure?(e.g.?
 pins?or?nails,?screws,?brackets)?
 ? ?Describe?the?location?and?the?use?of?the?item.?
 ? ?Describe?the?material?used?and?the?reason?for?
 the?conclusion.?Of?course,?include?any?testing?
 used?to?reach?this?determination?(e.g.,?XRF)?
 ?
 ? ? Metals?used?in?functional?features?(e.g.?locks,?
 knobs?or?handles,?hinges)?
 ? ?Describe?the?location?and?the?use?of?the?item.?
 ? ?Describe?the?material?used?and?the?reason?for?
 the?conclusion.?Of?course,?include?any?testing?
 used?to?reach?this?determination?(e.g.,?XRF)?
 ?
 ? ? Metals?used?for?more?decorative?functions.? ? ?Describe?the?location?and?the?use?of?the?item.?
 ? ?Describe?the?material?used?and?the?reason?for?
 the?conclusion.?Of?course,?include?any?testing?
 used?to?reach?this?determination?(e.g.,?XRF)?
 ?
 ? ? Surface?Coatings.?
 ?
 ? ?Describe?the?location?and?the?use?of?the?item.?
 ? ?Describe?the?material?used?and?the?reason?for?
 the?conclusion.?Of?course,?include?any?testing?
 used?to?reach?this?determination?(e.g.,?UV?VIS?
 Spectrometer).?
 ?
 ? ? Dyes? ? ?Describe?the?location?and?the?use?of?the?item.?
 ? ?Describe?the?material?used?and?the?reason?for?
 the?conclusion.?Of?course,?include?any?testing?
 used?to?reach?this?determination?(e.g.,?Cross?
 sectional?analysis?with?UV?light
 25
 )?
 ?
 ? ? Glues? ? ?Describe?the?location?and?the?use?of?the?item.?
 ? ?Describe?the?material?used?and?the?reason?for?
 the?conclusion.?Of?course,?include?any?testing?
 used?to?reach?this?determination?(e.g.,?The?
 Getty?Centre?s?protein?analysis?to?identify?the?
 type?of?animal?used?to?produce?the?glue
 26
 .)?
 ?
 ?
 ?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 25?The?recommended?approach?is?the?UV/VIS?absorbtion?spectrometry?which?is?a?a?non?destructive?method?for?
 dyes?identification?that?has?been?developed?by??Dr.?Heinrich?Piening??(reference:??(H.?Piening,?UV/VIS?
 Absorbtion?Spectrometry:?A?Non?Destructive?Method?For?Dyestuff?Identification,?Presented?at?conference:??
 Marquetry???Past?and?Present?2nd?Scandinavian?Symposium?on?Furniture?Technology?and?Design?Vadstena,?
 Sweden?May?10?12,?2007).?
 26?One?process?is?one?in?which?the?type?of?animal?used?is?identified?by?an?analysis?of?the?proteins?present?in?the?
 glues.??See:??A.?Heginbotham,?V.?Millay,?M.?Quick,?The?Use?of?Immunofluorescence?Microscopy?(IFM)?and?
 Enzyme?Linked?Immunosorbent?Assay?(ELISA)?as?Complementary?Techniques?for?Protein?Identification?in?
 Artists??Materials,?WAGPostprints,?2004,?Portland?Oregan.?
?
 MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?VI???Final?Thoughts?&?Conclusions? ???Page?352?
 ?
 ?
 ?
 ?
 ?
 The?following?table?outlines?the?analysis?approach?that?is?suggested?by?this?research.??
 ?
 Table?6?3?
 Data?Analysis?Model?
 Specific?Questions?Asked? Comments?
 ? ? Discuss?as?many?comparisons?as?appropriate?
 such?as??
 o Similar?pieces?made?by?the?same?workshop.?
 o Similar?pieces?produced?by?other?workshops,?
 but?within?the?same?period?and?
 country/region?
 o Similar?pieces?made?by?workshops?in?other?
 countries.?
 ? Attempt?to?answer?the?questions:??
 o How?similar/dissimilar?is?this?piece?from?other?
 pieces?(made?by?the?same?workshop,?other?
 workshops)???
 o What?characteristics?make?this?consistent?or?
 inconsistent?with?other?pieces?in?the?
 comparison???
 o Why?do?these?differences?exist?between?this?
 piece?and?the?others?to?which?it?is?being?
 compared????
 ?
 ? ? After?reviewing?the?structure?and?having?made?
 comparisons?(where?possible?and?
 appropriate)?relate?the?design?and?the?
 making?of?this?piece?to?its?historical?context.??
 ? Relate?materials?used?to?the?practices?that?were?
 known?to?have?been?in?use?at?the?time?the?piece?
 was?made?(Are?the?two?consistent?,?Why?not?)?
 ? Relate?the?material?selection?to?the?key?events?of?the?
 time?(e.g.?Were?there?events?occurring?that?
 impacted?the?material?selection?)?
 ? How?do?the?decorative?elements?relate?to?the?
 ?fashions??of?the?time?the?piece?were?made???
 ? How?does?the?function?of?the?piece?relate?to?
 ?fashions??of?the?day???
 ?
 ?
 E? Further?Research??
 ?
 There?are?several?directions?that?it?is?hoped?that?the?future?research?might?take.??First?of?all,?
 there?is?much?data?needed?to?complete?the?objectives?set?out?in?this?thesis.??This?would?
 require?further?testing?to?determine?(and?in?some?cases?confirm)?the?different?materials?
 employed?in?the?furniture?at?issue?in?the?thesis,?particularly?the?two?pieces?by?Chippendale?
 and?Riesener?that?lie?at?the?heart?of?the?thesis.??Of?particular?interest?(to?this?author)?would?
 be?a?testing?regime?to?confirm?a)?the?constitution?of?the?dyes,?glues?and?varnishes?employed?
 on?the?pieces;?b)?the?formulas?for?the?different?metals?that?used?on?the?pieces;?together?
?
 MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?VI???Final?Thoughts?&?Conclusions? ???Page?353?
 with?c)?a?microscopic?analysis?of?the?timbers.?Such?work?would?require?time,?technology?and?
 (not?least)?access.???
 ?
 There?are?a?number?of?other?directions?that?this?research?could?take.?For?example:?
 ??
 ? Expanding?the?research?to?include?different?types?of?furniture?made?by?these?two?
 cabinetmakers.??Perhaps?the?first?step?in?this?progression?would?be?to?include?other?
 pieces?of?writing?furniture?by?Chippendale?and?Riesener??(for?Chippendale?for?
 example?this?might?include?dressing?tables?and?art?drawing?tables???for?Riesener?it?
 might?include?secr?taires?on?stands.?Following?this?might?come?commodes.?
 ? Expanding?the?research?to?include?other?furniture?makers.??The?idea?here?would?be?
 to?begin?the?process?of?cataloguing?other?key?C18th?cabinetmakers.?
 ? Another?project?that?could?be?very?valuable?would?to?produce?a?definitive?history?of?
 writing?furniture.???While?there?is?one?short?history?that?is?currently?available,?this?
 type?of?furniture?is?exceptionally?important?in?terms?of?its?cultural?implications27.??
 ? ?Another?important?project?would?be?to?try?to?establish?(by?avocation?and?
 dissemination)?a?common?template?(and?open?database)?for?the?collection?of?data?
 relating?to?furniture?makers,?so?that?different?museums,?conservators,?collectors?and?
 auction?houses?could?more?easily?share?and?access?such?data.?
 ? Another?project?would?be?to?continue?the?process?of?translating?key?texts?(that?
 proved?useful?in?this?research)?into?to?English.??The?first?text?of?this?kind?(since?its?
 translation?by?this?author?is?almost?complete)?would?be?the?book?by?P.?Verlet?on?
 Riesener.??Further?texts?would?include?both?Roubo?s?L?Art?Du?Menuisier??b?niste?
 (Paris?1772)?and?on?Watin?s??L?art?du?peintre,?doreur,?vernisseur?3rd?Ed,?(Paris?1776).?
 ?
 One?immediate?outcome?of?this?research?is?that?it?has?generated?interested?in?the?support?
 of?research?that?is?desired?by?a?major?collector?and?research?in?the?field.??This?is?leading?to?A?
 a?request?for?proposals?for?two?particular?research?projects??one?involving?the?application?of?
 the?approaches?discussed?in?this?thesis?to?a?comparison?between?an?American?cabinet?
 maker?(Thomas?Tufts)?and?another?project?on?later?pieces?by?Riesener.??In?both?of?these?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 27?M.?Bridge,?An?Encyclopaedia?of?Desks,?The?Apple?Press,?London,?1988.?
?
 MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?VI???Final?Thoughts?&?Conclusions? ???Page?354?
 instances,?the?goal?is?to?identify?some?of?the?key?combination?of?discriminating?
 characteristics?that?would?suggest?the?maker?s?identification.??The?pieces?that?are?to?be?
 studied?are?currently?at?a?number?of?well?known?museums?(The?Met?in?NY,?Versailles,?The?
 Wallace?Collection,??as?well?as?museums?in?Boston,?Philadelphia,?and?Washington?D.C.)??In?
 addition?to?the?detailed?measurements?that?were?taken?within?this?thesis,?the?research?
 group?has?authorized?the?inclusion?of?some?of?the?detailed?testing?that?was?mentioned?
 earlier.??These?proposals?are?currently?being?developed?for?submission.???
 ?
 ?