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 Chapter?IV?
 How?was?Fashionable?Furniture?
 Made?in?the?18th?Century??
 ?
 ?
 MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE?IN?ENGLAND?AND?FRANCE?
 DURING?THE?AGE?OF?ELEGANCE?
 ?
 ?
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?152?
 ?
 On?the?Cover:?
 ? A?Cabinet?Maker?s?Office,?painting,?unknown?artist,?ca?1770,?Great?Britain.?Picture?was?
 obtained?from?the?Victoria?&?Albert?collection?from?the?
 websightehttp://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O78662/painting?a?cabinet?makers?office/,?
 Accessed?on?07/10.?
 ?
 ? The?Cabinetmaker?s?Workshop;?Taken?from?C.?Gillispie?(ed.),?A?Diderot?Pictorial?
 Encyclopedia?of?Trades?and?Industry:??Manufacturing?and?Technical?Arts?in?Plates?
 Selected?from??L?Encyclop?dia?ou?Dictionnaire?Raisonn??des?Sciences?des?Arts?et?des?
 M?tiers??of?Denis?Diderot,?Doer?Publications,?NY,?1959,?Plate?291.?
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?153?
 ?
 ?
 A. Introduction?
 ?
 The?production?of?furniture?needs?an?organised?system,?which?locates?the?materials,?
 develops?the?necessary?skills?and?protects?the?individuals?involved?in?the?business?of?making?
 of?furniture.?The?modern?approach?to?this?industry?is?through?companies?which?source?
 materials,?the?manpower?and?to?a?large?extent?provide?necessary?training.??However,?how?
 England?and?France?solved?these?problems?in?the?C18th?was?very?different,?even?though?
 some?of?the?concepts?relied?upon?were?similar.??England?had?what?one?could?label?a?
 remarkably?modern?approach?although?at?that?time?they?did?not?have?the?kind?of?large?
 companies?with?which?we?are?familiar?today?to?provide?the?organisational?structure,?
 training?and?direction;?they?were,?it?seems,?at?the?beginning?of?the?development?of?this?type?
 of?structure.?
 ?
 C.?Edwards?defines?four?types?of?furniture?businesses?one?can?see?evolve?into?a?recognisably?
 modern?type?of?furniture?or?design?company.1????However,?before?looking?at?the?C18th?
 business?models?in?England?and?France,?consider?the?C21st?approach?to?the?production?of?
 furniture?which?conforms?to?a?standard?consumer?business?model.???Product?development?is?
 consumer?driven?through?the?use?of?marketing?research;?production?is?tightly?constrained?
 by?costs.??In?general,?furniture?production?and?marketing?is?run?by?very?large?multinational?
 companies?with?established?worldwide?networks?providing?them?with?essential?materials?
 and/or?services?through?which?they?market?their?products???and?like?most?packaged?goods,?
 furniture?is?promoted?through?sales?and?discounts.??Furniture?is?designed?primarily?to?meet?
 consumer?needs?(as?identified?through?market?research)?and?targeted?at?a?specific?market?
 (also?identified?through?market?research).??Designs?are?costed?to?find?optimal?methods?of?
 production?(materials,?manufacture,?quality?standards,?etc.)?and?tested?across?relevant?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 1?While?only?speculative?examples;?A?working?master,?who?only?make?and?sell?furniture?to?other?companies?
 who?in?turn?sell?them?to?consumers?or?other?businesses,?could?easily?be?seen?as?the?first?step?toward?evolving?
 into?the?modern?factory?producing?furniture?for?retail?outlets.,?The?integrated?manufacturing?firms?could?be?
 seen?as?evolving?into?something?like?a?Heals?or?a?Liberty,?offering?a?full?range?of?both?products?and?decorative?
 advise?to?its?customers.??
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?154?
 ?
 consumer?groups.??Designs?are?frequently?computer?generated?and?production?is?generally?
 outsourced?to?developing?economies?before?being?shipped?back?to?the?developed?world?
 where?it?is?promoted?via?the?mass?media?and?distributed?though?a?network?of?retail?
 outlets.2?????
 ?
 While?it?is?not?intended?to?compare?the?C18th?production?and?distribution?approaches?to?
 those?used?in?the?C20th,?it?does?appear?that?this?is?when?there?were?major?steps?taken?
 toward?a?C20th?approach.??In?the?C18th,?the?production?and?selling?of?furniture?was?
 definitely?different,?but?it?was?starting?to?evolve.?As?noted?earlier,?for?example,?shopping?
 was?becoming?the?fashionable?way?to?purchase?furniture?and?those?employed?were?
 becoming?more?than?just?cabinetmakers;?they?were?designing?fashionable?pieces?of?
 furniture?to?meet?their?individual?customer?s?needs,?they?were?looking?for?efficiencies?and?
 they?were?looking?to?grow?their?businesses???in?both?England?and?France.??
 ?
 One?must?remember?that?the?production?of??fashionable??furniture?during?these?times?was?
 aimed?primarily?at?the?very?wealthy3;?this?included?the?Royal?family?(particularly?in?France),?
 the?aristocracy?and?the?increasingly?affluent?middle?classes.?Servicing?the?fashionable?and?
 wealthy?was?(in?many?ways)?a?distinct?process.4??Chippendale?and?Riesener?often?visited?
 clients?and?certainly?corresponded.??A?few?clients?no?doubt?visited?Chippendale?s?workshops?
 on?St?Martin?Street?but?he?did?not?appear?to?have?an?actual?storefront.5?By?contrast,?in?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 2?That?is?not?to?say?that?there?are?not?exceptions?to?this,?in?both?modern?England?and?France?(as?well?as?other?
 countries.)?there?are?a?number?of?very?high?end?custom?furniture??designer?makers??who?develop?their?own?
 style?or?borrow?from?the?designs?of?older?styles.??These?furniture?makers?will?either?have?small?workshops?
 (e.g.,?Lillyfee?Workshops?in?Beaconsfield,?Berks,?UK)?or?a?network?of?workshops?(e.g.,?David?Linley).???
 3?This?is?unlike?today?when?most?furniture?businesses?are?trying?to?sell?their?products?to?a?broader?group?of?
 consumers.??This,?like?the?idea?of?fashion,?has?evolved?over?time?to?involve?more?people?in?the?process?of?
 buying?furniture.??
 4?While?at?times?the?differences?between?the??fashionable??portions?of?the?market?with?the?other?portions?of?
 the?market?will?be?brought?out,?these?differences?will?not?be?the?focus?of?this?chapter.?These?differences?will?
 only?be?used?to?illustrate?the?process?for?producing?fashionable?furniture.??For?an?excellent?discussion?of?the?
 general?process?for?making?furniture?in?the?C18th?England???see?C.?Edwards,?Eighteenth?Century?Furniture,?
 Manchester?University?Press,?Manchester,?1996.?
 5?By?looking?at?the?layout?of?Chippendale?s?workshop?there?was?no?area?specified?as?a?storefront?or?display?
 area?(See?Figure?4?6).??One?can?assume?that?there?was?an?office,?like?the?one?on?the?front?of?this?chapter,?but?it?
 would?not?be?likely?that?they?would?leave?off?a?shopping?area?off?this?diagram.??It?is?possible,?if?not?likely?that?
 people?did?come?to?an?office?to?review?designs,?etc.??Furthermore,?it?could?be?that?some?came?to?tour?his?
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?155?
 ?
 France,?prospective?clients?would?tour?the?fashionable?shops?of?the?Marchands?Merciers?of?
 the?Rue?St.?Honor??area?of?Paris,?though?apparently?few?visited?Riesener?s?workshops?in?the?
 Arsenal?near?the?Faubourg?Saint?Antoine.6??
 ?.??
 B.?Selling?to?the?Customer?
 ?
 Chapter?2??(p.?44)?described?how?fashion?began?to?be?marketed?through?elegant?new?stores?
 during?the?late?C18th.??Shopping?was?becoming?a?social?event?and?there?was?a?greater?
 inclusion?of?women?in?the?shopping?process.??The?C18th?was?also?to?see?an?ever?greater?
 demand?for?more?goods?and?the??moving?forces?behind?high?consumption?capitalism??
 became?the?catalogue?and?the?showroom.?7?As?will?be?shown?for?example,?the?Chippendale?
 Director?provided?a?definitive?catalogue?for?his?customers,?which?remains?to?this?day?a?
 privileged?icon?of?historic?significance.?
 ?
 In?both?England?and?France,?the?showroom?was?an?important?factor?in?selling?products?to?
 more?and?more?people.8?Interestingly,?one?of?the?innovations?that?allowed?for?having?glass?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 workshops.??There?were?people?who?considered?visiting?workshops?as?a?fashionable.??In?the?Diary?of?Sophie?
 Von?La?Roche,?Sophie?discusses?her?visit?much?like?one?would?describe?visiting?an?art?gallery.??It?can?only?be?
 assumed?that?such?educational?tours?would?take?place?in?Chippendale?s?workshops?at?times.???
 6??Another?difference?that?was?driven?indirectly?from?the?compartmentalization?of?the?different?functions?in?
 France?related?to?where?the?cabinetmaker?s?workshops.??While?many?of?the?English?cabinetmakers?were?
 located?in?fashionable?areas?of?London?because?they?were?also?the?sales?outlets,?this?was?not?the?case?with?
 the?French??b?nistes.??The??b?nistes?were?located?a?fair?distance?from?this?fashionable?areas?of?Paris.??While?
 St.?Honor??was?in?what?is?currently?called?the?8th?Arrondissement?(to?this?day?this?is?a?fashionable?area?close?to?
 the?Champs?Elys?es),?the??b?nistes?were?primarily?located?in?the?Faubourg?Saint?Antoine?area?close?to?the?
 Bastille?(in?what?is?now?known?as?the?12th?Arrondissement?and?still?not?a?very?fashionable?area?of?Paris.)?
 Riesener?s?workshops?were?fairly?close?by?in?the?Arsenal?de?Paris.??Taken?from:??Hughes,?P.,?(date?unknown)?
 Notes?for?a?speech?on?guilds?for?The?Wallace?Collection,?from?their?files?as?obtained?via?Paul?Tear,?obtained?
 07?2008,?p.?2?
 7?S.?Bayley,?Shops,?in?S.?Bayley?(ed?and?author),?Commerce?and?Culture:?From?Pre?industrial?Art?to?Post?
 Industrial?Value,?Fourth?Estate,?London,?1989,?p.?45.?
 8?It?is?interesting?to?note?that?while?it?is?evident?that?England?was?slightly?ahead?of?France?in?developing?the?
 storefront?in?the?late?C18th,?it?was?the?French?who?first?developed?the?modern?department?store?(the?Bon?
 March??which?was?started?in?the?1850?s).??See:?S.?Bayley,?Shops,?in?S.?Bayley?(ed?and?author),?Commerce?and?
 Culture:?From?Pre?industrial?Art?to?Post?Industrial?Value,?pp.?45?52?and?d'Avenel,?G.,?The?Bon?Marche?in?S.?
 Bayley?(ed?and?author),?Commerce?and?Culture:?From?Pre?industrial?Art?to?Post?Industrial?Value,?pp.?57?60.?
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?156?
 ?
 windows?in?on?the?storefront?was?the?development?of?the?techniques?to?make?sheet?glass.9??
 It?was?the?English?stores?who?started?this?trend?that?the?French?were?quick?to?copy???as?C.?
 Sargentson?notes.10??
 ?
 In?France,?furniture?was?rarely?made?on?the?premises?in?which?it?was?retailed,?with?the?
 result?that?French?workshops?tended?to?be?darker?and?crowded.11?In?England,?stores?were?
 set?up?and?operated?by?the?craftsmen?themselves?in?the?premises?occupied?by?the?
 workshop.12?By?contrast,?in?France,?furniture?was?marketed?by?a?special?group?of?ambitious?
 traders?referred?to?as?the?Marchands?Merciers???not?the?cabinetmakers13.??The?Marchands?
 Merciers?were?a?special?group?of?guild?members?who?did?not?make?anything?themselves,?
 but?designed?products?and?commissioned?their?production.??While?a?Marchand?would?sell?a?
 variety?of?decorative?items,?they?would?not?become?directly?involved?in?the?production?of?
 furniture?or?porcelain?plates,?etc.14?The?many?different?guilded?and?non?guilded?craftsmen?
 (artisans?libres?is?the?name?that?was?applied?to?the?non?guilded?craftsmen15)?who?supplied?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 9?Ironically?it?was?a?French?innovation,?in?1688,?in?which?plate?glass?became?useable?in?this?fashion,?prior?
 versions?of?so?called?plate?glass?was?inconsistent?in?its?ability?to?correctly?refract?light.??This?method?was?a?
 process?of?pouring?the?molten?glass?on?a?metal?table,?rolling?out?the?glass?to?make?it?even?then?sanding?and?
 polishing?both?sides.?Information?was?presented?on?http://www.glassonline.com/infoserv/history.html?
 accessed?on?01/2010.?
 10?C.?Sargentson,?Merchants?and?Luxury?Markets:?The?Marchands?Merciers?of?Eighteenth?Century?Paris,?
 Victoria?and?Albert?Museum,?London,?1996,?p.?150.?
 11?C.?Sargentson,?Merchants?and?Luxury?Markets:?The?Marchands?Merciers?of?Eighteenth?Century?Paris,?pp.?
 131?133.?
 12?There?are?several?texts?that?discuss?but?probably?the?most?through?discussion?of?this?topic?is?C.?Edwards,?
 Eighteenth?Century?Furniture,?Manchester?University?Press,?Manchester,?1996.??
 13?There?were?exceptions?to?this.??Officially?the??b?niste?could?sell?furniture?and?in?a?few?cases?this?did?occur.??
 Per?F.?Watson:??
 ?
 Certain?French?craftsmen?like?Migeon,?Roussel?and?the?elder?Dubois?were?not?only?furniture?makers,?
 but?furniture?dealers?as?well,?subcontracting?work?to?other??b?niste?and?retailing?it?at?a?profit.?
 ?
 ???See;?F.?Watson,?Makers??Stamps?on?French?Furniture?of?the?18th?Century:??What?they?are?and?What?they?
 Signify,?The?Antique?Collector,?December,?1959,?p.?223?and?J.?Augard,??Marks?on?French?Furniture?and?the?
 Decree?of?Parliament?of?1749,?The?Decorative?Arts?Society?Newsletter,?Vol?8,?No?4,?1982,?p.?2.?
 14?One?observation?that?one?needs?to?keep?in?mind?is?that?the?Marchand?Merciers?were?guild?members;?as?
 such?they?were?restricted?in?what?they?could?do.??While?they?were?allowed?to?go?to?independent,?non?guild?
 furniture?makers,?they?were?not?allowed?to?make?furniture?themselves.??(See?C.?Sargentson,?Merchants?and?
 Luxury?Markets:?The?Marchands?Merciers?of?Eighteenth?Century?Paris.)?
 15?F.?Watson,?Makers??Stamps?on?French?Furniture?of?the?18th?Century:??What?they?are?and?what?they?Signify,?
 p.?222.?
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?157?
 ?
 the?Marchand?Merciers?would?be?very?specialized.16??Because?a?cabinetmaker,?for?example,?
 would?not?make?chairs?or?undertake?upholstery,?this?meant?that?the?Marchands?Merciers?
 had?to?go?to?the?different?craftsmen?for?different?elements?of?a?scheme?or?design?before?
 arranging?for?them?to?be?assembled?from?the?different?components???the?person?usually?
 assigned?to?the?function?of?putting?the?different?parts?together?was?the??b?niste.?17?
 ?
 In?England,?in?addition?to?marketing?and?selling?their?own?products,?furniture?makers?
 frequently?offered?a?variety?of?different?products?and?services.?Some?were?directly?related?
 (e.g.,?furniture?maker?and?chair?maker,?chair?maker?and?upholster)?while?others?were?not?
 (e.g.,?funeral?service?director).18???As?C.?Edwards?observes:???
 ?
 ?Due?to?the?developments?of?major?metropolitan?centres,?new?forms?of?business?organisation?
 developed.??These?were?often?based?on?the?amalgamation?of?trades,?for?example,?a?cabinet?making?
 business?might?grow?to?include?chair?making?and?glass?dealing,?a?carver?might?include?gilding?in?his?
 repertoire,?and?chair?makers?and?upholsters?often?developed?into?highly?successful?businesses.???
 ?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 16?While?it?is?thought?that?the?Marchand?Merciers?primarily?went?to?the?guilds?for?their?products,?there?was?a?
 loophole?in?the?legislation?that?allowed?them?to?sell?furniture?that?did?not?have?a?stamp.??Obviously,?this?was?
 fought?by?the?other?guilds?and?it?created?a?number?of?complications.??For?example,?guilded?craftsmen?could?
 sell,?probably?at?a?lower?cost,?unstamped?furniture?to?the?Marchand?Merciers?(they?were?not?supposed?to?but?
 it?is?thought?that?they?did?anyway.)?and?it?allowed?the?mostly?immigrant?population?outlets?for?their?furniture.?
 J.?Augard,?Marks?on?French?Furniture?and?the?Decree?of?Parliament?of?1749,?p.?5.?
 17?As?stated?elsewhere,?there?were?exceptions?to?this,?first?of?all?the?cabinetmakers?who?worked?in?the?Royal?
 workshops?could?expand?their?trade?to?different?areas?such?as?producing?their?own?ormolu.??There?is?also?a?
 good?chance?that?the?non?guild?shops?in?the?Faubourg?Saint?Antoine?district?stretched?the?rules?by?performing?
 services?beyond?their?primary?skill?set.??
 18?A?detailed?review?of?the?business?descriptions?included?in?both?the?Banks?and?the?Heal?collection?of?cards,?
 advertisements?and?billings,?show?that?a?large?percentage?of?the?furniture?making?shops?offered?both?soft?
 goods??(e.g.,?upholstered?chairs,?pillows,?curtains)?as?well?as?case?furniture?(e.g.,?tables,?library?tables,?
 wardrobes,?chest?of?drawers.)?Many?of?them?also?offered?other?services?such?as?buying?household?furnishings?
 from?families?of?those?who?had?recently?died?(and?even?making?the?coffin?and?performing?the?service.)??
 Chippendale?fell?into?the?former?group?in?that?his?workshop?offered?both?soft?and?hard?furnishings).??The?
 buying?of?used?furniture?from?patrons?also?opened?the?doors?to?a?wide?range?of?services?from?selling?used?
 furniture?to?running?auctions?and?acting?as?evaluators?for?the?public?at?large.???
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?158?
 ?
 While?C.?Edwards?goes?on?to?cite?the?example?of?Ince?and?Mayhew,?Chippendale?could?just?
 as?easily?been?given,?in?so?much?as?Chippendale?s?workshops?offered?a?variety?of?services?
 including:??cabinetmaking,?chair?making,?upholstery,?glass?and?mirror?cutting,?etc?(see?Figure?
 4?6?which?shows?a?schematic?of?Chippendale?s?workshop?indicating?all?of?the?services?that?
 his?shop?offered.??One?can?also?look?at?the?list?of?services?provided?by?reviewing?the?billings?
 that?are?provided?in?C.?Gilbert?s?book?on?
 Chippendale19).?
 ?
 The?diversity?of?services?provided?by?English?
 cabinetmakers?is?admirably?illustrated?by?the?
 Banks?and?Heal?collection?of?trade?cards?which?
 provide?stunning?evidence?of?a?consumer?society?
 in?the?making20.?While?many?of?these?services?
 directly?related?to?furniture?making,?many?were?
 tangential?(funeral?services,?probate?etc.).??
 Curiously,?while?Chippendale?s?Director?lays?out?
 his?services?at?some?length,?his?trade?card?did?not?
 ??see?Figure?4?7.??
 ?
 The?type?of?firm?that?C.?Edwards?describes?in?Ince?
 and?Mayhew?is?what?C.?Edwards?calls?an?example?of?the??integrated?manufacturing?firms.21?
 The?invoices?listed?in?C.?Gilbert?s?books?on?Chippendale?also?show?that?a?very?large?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 19?C.?Gilbert,?The?Life?and?Works?of?Thomas?Chippendale,?Studio?Vista/Christies,?London,?1978.?
 20?A?review?of?these?trade?cards?show?the?variety?of?services?that?were?being?offered?by?the?different?
 businesses?and?the?extreme?degree?that?they?were?trying?to?market?themselves.??As?seen?in?Figure?4?1,?this?
 businessman?offered?services?as?an?undertaker,?cabinetmaker,?upholsterer,?others?offered?appraisal?and?
 auction?services,?etc.??Many?cards?made?such?claim?as?offering???the?best?prices??and?the??highest?quality??and?
 other?similar?commercial/advertising?claims.??One?could?conclude?that?this?was?the?beginning?of?the?furniture?
 business?community?starting?to?turn?its?attention?toward?the?consumer???one?step?toward?expanding?to?whom?
 they?promote?their?products?and?toward?thinking?in?modern?marketing?terms.??
 21?See?C.?Edwards,?Eighteenth?Century?Furniture,?p.?17.??Here?C.?Edwards?divides?the?furniture?making?
 businesses?into?four?groups;?Working?masters,?Integrated?manufacturing?firms,?craftsmen?shopkeepers?and?
 furniture?retailers.??
 ?
 ?
 Figure?4?1:??Business?card?of?Hudson?
 and?Corney?offering?cabinet?making,?
 upholstery,?undertaking?as?well?as?
 'ware?rooms'?or?sales?rooms?(1790?
 1809).??
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?159?
 ?
 percentage?of?his?billings?were?for?activities?other?than?cabinetmaking,?including?such?things?
 as?making?bedding,?curtains?and?other?soft?furnishings?as?well?as?providing?items?like?wall?
 sconces,?mirrors?and?frames.???A?review?of?the?trade?cards?of?the?Heal?Collection?shows?that?
 this?kind?of?combination?was?fairly?common?and?that?many?cabinetmakers?provided?
 services?for?making?blinds,?paper?hanging,?turning,?carving?etc.???In?addition?to?these?skills,?
 cabinetmakers?frequently?engaged?in?probate?and?inventory;?evaluating?and?buying?estates?
 and?auctioning?furniture?as?well?as?making?coffins?and?providing?funeral?services.?Though?no?
 office?as?such?is?noted?on?Chippendale?s?workshop?plans,?it?is?very?likely?his?workshop?had?
 the?kind?of?office?depicted?on?the?cover?page?for?this?chapter,?where?he?would?have?
 managed?his?affairs?and?occasionally?receive?his?clients.?22??
 ?
 C.?Gilbert?discusses?how?Chippendale?would?visit?his?client?s?home?to?consult?with?the?
 owner?(and?perhaps?the?architect)?while?taking?measurements?and?observational?notes.?He?
 would?produce?small?sketches?on?these?visits?to?obtain?initial?approval?either?from?the?
 architect?or?his?client.??Once?approved,?he?would?produce?large?technical?drawings?and?
 costings,?proceeding?with?the?work?once?a?proposal?had?been?accepted.??Chippendale?
 would?also?take?responsibility?for?delivery,?building?custom?deal?crates?for?his?furniture?and?
 furnishing?instructions?as?to?how?they?might?be?best?shipped.23??
 ?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 P.?Kirkham?refers?to?this?type?of?furniture?shop?as??comprehensive?manufacturing??shops?and?discusses?that?
 the?important?combination?is?that?of?cabinetmaking?and?upholstery?and?suggesting?that?the?other?trades?are?
 not?as?key?to?the?establishment?of?a?solid?business.??While?the?combination?of?two?sets?of?skills?is?important,?it?
 was?also?important?to?have?the?financial?support?of?two?individuals?to?get?these?businesses?started.??See?P.?
 Kirkham,?The?London?Furniture?Trade:??1700?1870,?p.56.?
 ?
 22?See?the?individual?accounts?in?C.?Gilbert,?The?Life?and?Works?of?Thomas?Chippendale?Vol?1.??
 ?
 Many?of?his?clients?worked?in?London?in?their?capacity?as?either?members?of?the?House?of?Lords?or?members?
 of?Parliament.??It?is?likely?that?some?of?the?planning?and?visits?to?Chippendale?s?workshops?took?place?during?
 these?times.??
 ?
 23?C.?Gilbert,?The?Life?and?Works?of?Thomas?Chippendale,?p.?27.?
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?160?
 ?
 According?to?C.?Edwards,?The?C18th?furniture?was?increasingly?sold?through?retail?outlets?
 frequently?described?as?warehouses.24??In?the?case?of?the?cabinetmaker?Linnell,?the?
 workshops?were?in?the?back?and?the?retail?showroom?was?in?the?front?on?the?ground?floor.25??
 However,?the?trade?cards?in?the?Heal?Collection?suggest?that?while?it?was?usual?to?have?
 cabinetmakers?selling?their?own?goods,?it?was?becoming?increasingly?common?for?retailers?
 to?market?goods?produced?by?others.??As?C.?Edwards?and?others?have?noted,?the?retail?
 environment?of?the?C18th?was?becoming?increasingly?sophisticated,?particularly?in?terms?of?
 display?and?advertising???as?any?review?of?the?trade?cards?of?the?day?will?reveal.?26?In?this?
 sense,?Chippendale?s?workshop?was?not?wholly?representative?of?this?growing?trend.??In?the?
 design?of?his?workshop?there?is?no?suggestion?of?a?special?display?area,?nor?evidence?of?
 storage?for?keeping?an?extensive?stock?of?furniture.???It?appears?that?his?business?was?largely?
 by?commission.??
 ?
 In?France,?one?could?argue?that?because?of?the?guild?system?enforced?specialization;?
 cabinetmakers?were?prevented?from?developing?the?entrepreneurial?skills?seen?in?England,?
 leaving?the?field?open?to?the?Merchand?Merciers.27???It?was?the?Merchand?Merciers?for?
 example?who?led?the?way?in?putting?together?the?unique?and?exotic?combinations?of?
 materials?that?characterise?the?furniture?of?this?period?and?were?responsible?for?the?fashion?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 24?According?to?C.?Edwards,?warehouses?were??often?synonymous??with?a?shop?with?a?display.??He?points?to?the?
 trade?card?for??Warren?and?Co.??who?described?themselves?as?a??Warehouse?for?all?sorts?of?elegant?furniture,?
 pictures,?china,?etc.??There?are?a?number?of?other?cards?that?similarly?describe?themselves?as?a??warehouse??
 but?go?on?to?present?themselves?as?essentially?what?some?called??sale?shops?,?which?like?a?modern??Heals??or?
 ?Liberty??sold?a?variety?of?decorative?objects??.including?furniture.??See?C.?Edwards,?Eighteenth?Century?
 Furniture,?p.?52.?
 25?See?C.?Edwards,?Eighteenth?Century?Furniture,?p.?51.?
 26See:?C.?Edwards,?Eighteenth?Century?Furniture,?p.?52,??
 ????????????C.?Walsh,??Shop?Design?and?the?Display?of?Goods?in?Eighteenth?Century?London?,?Journal?of?Design?
 ?????????????????History,?8.3,?1995,?pp.?157?176?and??
 ????????????H.?Mui,?&?L.?Mui,?Shops?and?Shop?keeping?in?Eighteenth?Century?England,?McGill?Queen's?University?
 ?????????????????Press,?Montreal,?1989.?
 27?The?furniture?makers?and?sellers?that?are?discussed?in?this?thesis,?as?mentioned?before,?are?limited?to?those?
 producing?the?very?high?quality?products.??This?portion?of?the?furniture?market?was?mostly?controlled?by?the?
 guilds.??While?it?is?known?that?some?of?the?Marchand?Mercier?and?even?some?guilded?cabinetmakers?did?buy?
 furniture?from?non?guild?furniture?makers,?much?of?this?was?under?guild?control.??However,?the?research?for?
 this?thesis?did?not?go?into?the?other?ways?in?which?these?non?guild?furniture?makers?distributed?their?furniture.??
 While?it?is?likely?that?they?sold?through?markets?or?small?shops,?or?perhaps?in?their?workshops,?it?is?only?
 speculation?at?this?time.?While?information?on?the?entire?English?market?was?readily?available,?similar?material?
 for?the?French?market?was?not?located.??
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?161?
 ?
 for?placing?a?porcelain?plaque?on?the?front?or?top?of?a?small?table.?28??So,?in?addition?to?
 commissioning?and?coordinating?projects?(to?use?a?modern?term)?the?Merciers?became?
 involved?in?design.?As?Mimi?Hellman?observes:??
 ?
 The?Marchand?Mercier?practiced?a?mode?of?making?that?was?conceptual?and?creative,?rather?than?
 manual?and?material,?and?thus?was?perceived?as?more?noble?than?the?artisan.??His?Project?was?
 fundamentally?aesthetic,?emphasizing?practices?of?artful?choice,?arrangement,?and?embellishment.29??
 ?
 Despite?a?number?of?differences?between?Riesener?and?Chippendale,?the?two?were?very?
 similar?in?many?ways.??For?example,?despite?the?fact?that?Riesener?did?not?publish?a?design?
 book,?according?to?Verlet,?he?was?somewhat?of?a?celebrity.??This?is?clearly?illustrated?in?his?
 portrait,?where?Riesener?can?be?seen?wearing?a?powdered?wig?and?an?embroidered?
 waistcoat?and?wearing?an?air?of?confidence?which?suggests?he?is?much?more?than?a?simple?
 cabinetmaker.??The?pencils?in?his?hand,?poised?over?a?set?of?drawings?reinforces?this?image?
 of?Riesener?the?artist?and?designer,?not?the?artisan?and?cabinetmaker?(See?cover?of?Chapter?
 V?(p.?192)?for?a?copy?of?this?portrait).30?Riesener?worked?in?a?strict?guild?system,?yet?his?
 relationship?with?his?clients?was?of?a?very?similar?kind?to?that?enjoyed?by?Chippendale.??It?
 was?unlikely?that?clients?visited?Riesener?in?his?workshop,?like?Chippendale?he?visited?his?
 clients,?making?trips?to?Versailles?to?meet?with?the?Royal?family?for?example?or?members?of?
 the?Garde?Meuble.??He?would?take?measurements?and?make?notes,?then?go?back?make?
 detailed?drawings?before?distributing?the?work?to?his?employees?or?subcontractors.31????
 ?
 Despite?this?personalized?service,?many?of?the?members?of?the?aristocracy,?the?Garde?
 Meuble?and?the?Royal?family?shopped?at?the?stores?on?rue?St.?Honor?.??Even?Riesener?s?best?
 client?Marie?Antoinette?was?known?to?buy?furniture?from?Dominique?Daguerre?(d.?1796)??
 ?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 28?According?to?C.?Sargentson,?there?were?several?Marchand?Merciers?who?were?credited?with?designing?
 furniture?with?S?vres?plaques.??These?include?Dominique?Daguerre?and?Simon?Philippe?Poirier.?C.?Sargentson,?
 Merchants?and?Luxury?Markets:?The?Marchands?Merciers?of?Eighteenth?Century?Paris.?
 29?M.?Hellman,?Furniture,?Sociability,?and?the?Work?of?Leisure?in?Eighteenth?Century?France,?Eighteenth?
 Century?Studies,?Vol?32,?No?4,?1999,?pp.?418.?
 30?P.?Verlet,?(Translated?from?German?by?K.?Riall),?M?bel?von?J.?H.?Riesener,?Darmstadt,?Germany,?1954,?p.?6.?
 31?P.?Verlet,?(Translated?from?German?by?K.?Riall),?M?bel?von?J.?H.?Riesener,?p.11.?
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?162?
 ?
 In?terms?of?the?wider?furniture?industry?that?was?beginning?to?emerge?in?the?C18th.?there?is?
 evidence?to?suggest?this?was?becoming?international?in?dimension.??Chippendale?was?known?
 outside?of?England?for?example?and?copies?of?his?Director?are?known?to?have?found?their?
 way?to?France,?the?U.S.A.?and?Russia???a?brilliant?vehicle?to?market?himself?and?his?business?
 as?well?as?seal?his?place?in?history.32?Other?workshops?in?England?were?becoming?quite?large?
 and?it?was?known?(Seddon?for?example?was?reported?in?1786?by?Sophie?La?Roche?to?have?
 400?employees?and?that?he?was?producing?all?kinds?of?furniture?for?all?levels?of?customers?
 from?the??needs?of?the?needy?and?the?luxurious??and?that?Seddon?worked?with??all?manner?of?
 woods?.).33??
 ?
 One?can?also?look?to?the?C18th?for?an?incipient?model?of?modern?marketing.??For?example?
 Riesener??marketed??himself?by?taking?the?very?bold?step?of?creating?a?Bureau?du?Roi?and?
 presenting?it?to?Louis?XVI???which?was?enough?to?ensure?Royal?patronage34.??The?Marchands?
 Merciers,?on?the?other?hand,?were?starting?to?learn?how?to?sell???through?attractive?signage,?
 elegant?shop?displays?etc.??Similarly?in?England,?furniture?retailers?were?making?increasing?
 use?of?signage,?display,?trade?cards?and?labels,?as?well?as?clever?promotions???as?can?be?seen?
 in?P.?Kirkham?s?The?London?Furniture?Trade:??1700?1870.35???
 ?
 So,?while?shopping?for?furniture?was?changing?in?both?England?and?France,?albeit?in?
 different?ways,?the?process?of?producing?furniture?was?also?changing;?planting?the?seeds?of?
 a?more?modern?commercial?approach.?
 ?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 32?This?was?despite?the?observation?that?advertising?by?fashionable?shops?was?not?looked?upon?favorably.?See?
 C.?Gilbert,?The?Life?and?Works?of?Thomas?Chippendale,?p.25.?
 33?See?A.?Heal,?The?Firm?of?Seddon,?Cabinet?Makers?1756?1868?Country?Life,?Vol?LXXV,?1934,??pp.?72?73?also?S.?
 Von?La?Roche?(translated?by?Williams,?C.),?Sophie?in?London,?1786,?J.?Cape,?London,?1933.??It?is?interesting?to?
 note?that?P.?Kirkham,?reported?that?this?firm?had?only?80?employees?20?years?before?the?date?that?Sophie?Von?
 La?Roche?was?visiting?in?London;?suggesting?a?very?rapid?growth?between?those?two?points?in?time.?See?P.?
 Kirkham,?The?London?Furniture?Trade:??1700?1870,?p.?61.?
 34?This?is?evident?by?the?title?of??b?niste?du?Roi,?as?well?as,?the?high?levels?of?patronage?that?was?reported?by?
 the?Garde?Meuble?in?his?journals?during?the?next?10?years.??See?the?introduction?to?Appendix?G?that?recaps?the?
 amount?of?work?that?Riesener?executed?for?the?Royal?households?during?this?period.???
 35?This?series?of?drawings?was?in?the?appendix?of?P.?Kirkham,?The?London?Furniture?Trade:??1700?1870,?no?page?
 number?was?given.??It?should?be?pointed?out?that?these?drawings?were?of?shops?a?few?years?after?the?late?
 C18th,?specifically?1838?40.???
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?163?
 ?
 C. Business?Conditions????France??
 ?????????????????????
 The?structure?underpinning?the?structure?of?the?French?furniture?trade?also?proved?to?be?
 interesting.??As?noted?above,?Louis?XIV?set?in?train?a?system?using?a?combination?of?
 government?supported?guilds?whose?members?worked?for?the?Royal?household?and?a?group?
 of?artisans?who?worked?with?the?world?outside?of?the?Royal?court?in?areas?that?were?
 protected?by?the?church?from?the?encroachment?of?the?guilds?and?the?crown.36????However,?
 while?the?primary?source?of?quality,?fashionable?furniture?for?most?purchasers?of?such?
 products?was?guild?craftsmen,?it?is?known?that?occasionally,?non?guild?craftsmen?did?sell?to?
 the?Marchand?Merciers.37?
 ?
 The?French?guild?system?for?making?furniture?was?structured?by?different?craft?skills.??The?
 two?key?furniture?guilds?were?(initially)?the?Menuisiers?(who?made?furniture?in?solid?wood?
 such?as?beds,?chairs?and?consoles)?and?the??b?nists?(who?specialized?in?veneered?wood?or?
 marquetry?and?who?focused?on?case?furniture?such?as?cabinets,?commodes,?bureaus?and?
 secr?taire???abattants).??Eventually,?these?two?guilds?combined?to?form?the?Corporation?des?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 36?The?primary?example?of?this?was?the?Faubourg?Saint?Antoine?just?outside?of?what?was?then?Paris.??There?
 were?others?areas?such?as?Enclos?du?Temple,?Saint?Jean?de?Latran?and?Saint?Denis?de?la?Chartre?but?by?far?the?
 most?know?areas?are?the?Faubourg?area.??See?A.?Pradere,?(Translated?by?Perran?Wood),?French?Furniture?
 Makers,?The?Art?of?the?Ebeniste?from?Louis?XIV?to?the?Revolution,?pp.?12?13.?
 37?As?background,?this?reviews?the?development?and?the?primary?purpose?of?the?guilds.??Although?there?were?
 guilds?as?far?back?as?Roman?times?and?they?were?quite?common?in?medieval?times?throughout?both?Europe?
 and?England.??Their?redevelopment?in?the?approximately?the?11th?Century,?was?closely?associated?with?the?
 development?of?urban?life.??As?populations?became?larger?and?more?organized,?the?guilds?probably?started?as?
 a?way?to?provide?the?craftsman?with?support?and?to?protect?their?interests.??They?provided?money?and?other?
 types?of?social?support?for?when?a?member?passed?away?and/or?had?health?problems?(e.g.,?providing?
 payments?to?the?family?members.)?and?in?some?cases?they?provided?a?structure?for?community?support.)??See?
 M.?Prak,?Craft?Guilds?in?North?Western?Europe?(England,?France,?Low?Countries)?Paper?for?The?Return?to?
 Guilds,?Utrecht?University,?October,?2006.??Over?time?they?developed?and?provided?a?system?for?training?new?
 craftsmen?and?they?provided?a?structure?for?insuring?the?quality?of?the?work?of?its?members?(through?fines?and?
 actually?destroying?improperly?produced?material).??On?a?more?global?level?they?provide?the?government?with?
 a?mechanism?for?communicating?with?the?population?of?skilled?labour,?for?controlling?the?production?and?
 distribution?of?goods?and?hence?to?some?extent?regulated?the?economy.??In?addition?it?was?a?way?for?taxes?to?
 be?collected?primarily?through?membership?fees,?entrance?fees?and?fines.?Louis?XIV?used?the?guild?structure?to?
 control?and?to?guide?the?development?of?new?fashionable?pieces?of?decorative?art?and?to?develop?industries?in?
 France.??
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?164?
 ?
 Menuisiers??b?niste?(even?though?there?remained?rivalry?between?them).38??Both?groups?
 worked?with?other?guilds;?while?the?Menuisiers?often?worked?with?carvers,?gilders?and?
 painters,?the??b?niste?of?the?worked?with?the?bronzers?to?decorate?their?pieces.??39?These?
 bronzers?were?made?up?of?two?groups???the?fondeurs?who?cast?and?finished?bronze?pieces?
 and?the?doreures?who?subsequently?chased?and?gilded?them.??The?following?table?presents?
 most?of?the?guilds?that?worked?with?the?Corporation?des?Menuisier??b?niste.??
 ?
 Table?4?1?
 Main?Guilds?Providing?Support?To??b?niste?and?Menuisiers40?
 Guild?Name? Function?of?Guild?
 Fondeurs? These?members?cast?and?finished?bronze?pieces.?
 ?
 Doreures? Working?with?the?items?cast?by?the?Fondeurs,?this?guild?was?
 responsible?for?chasing?and?gilding?the?bronze?pieces.?
 ?
 Laqueurs?
 vernisseurs?
 These?guild?members?made?imitations?of?oriental?lacquer?for?various?
 pieces?of?furniture?
 ?
 Marbriers? This?guild?made?the?marble?tops?of?furniture.??These?were?frequently?
 used?on?commodes,?corner?cupboards?and?cabinets.?
 ?
 Peintre?doreur? This?was?the?guild?member?who?was?responsible?for?gilding?and?
 frequently?for?painting?the?item?of?furniture.???Note?this?person?is?
 different?from?the?guild?member?who?gilded?metal?fixtures.???
 ?
 Serruriers? These?made?the?locks?for?the?drawers?and?other?functional?metal?
 components?such?as?the?racks?for?reading?desks?and?secretaries?and?
 the?mechanisms?for?mechanical?writing?and?toilet?tables?
 ?
 Sculpteurs? The?Sculpteurs?executed?detailed?carvings?usually?on?chairs,?sofas,?
 beds?and?picture?frames.??Note?that?the?Menuisiers?would?have?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 38?Please?not?that?these?two?classifications?were?originally?part?of?a?single?guild???the?guild?of?Menuisiers?et?
 Huchers?(makers?of?chests)?from?which?had?been?a?break?out?of?the?Charapentiers?(carpenters).??The?
 Menuisiers?later?broke?into?the?Menuisiers?and?the??b?niste.??While?this??officially?occurred?in?1743,?it?had?
 been?moving?in?this?direction?for?a?number?of?years?prior?to?this.??(See?G.?Pallot,?L?Art?du?Siege?Au?XVIIIe?Si?cle?
 En?France,??ACR?Gismondi?Editeurs,?Courbevoi,?Paris,?1987,?p?14.)?
 39?39?A.?Pradere?(Translated?by?Perran?Wood),?French?Furniture?Makers,?The?Art?of?the??b?niste?from?Louis?XIV?
 to?the?Revolution,?pp.?12?13.?
 40?The?primary?source?for?these?was?the?speech?notes?by?P.?Hughes,?For?a?talk?titled?The?Guild?System,?which?
 was?taken?from?files?in?The?Wallace?Collection,?however?much?of?this?information?was?also?in?A.?Pradere?
 (Translated?by?P.?Wood),?French?Furniture?Makers,?The?Art?of?the??b?niste?from?Louis?XIV?to?the?Revolution,?
 and?from?conversations?with?C.?Sargentson.???
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?165?
 ?
 Table?4?1?
 Main?Guilds?Providing?Support?To??b?niste?and?Menuisiers40?
 Guild?Name? Function?of?Guild?
 constructed?the?pieces?that?were?to?be?carved.??
 ?
 Tapissier? These?guild?members?made?the?stuffing?seat?furniture,?for?making?
 feather?cushions?and?mattresses?for?the?beds.?They?would?have?also?
 made?the?top?covers?of?the?furnishings.?41?
 ?
 One?of?the?strict?rules?of?the?guilds?was?that?members?could?not?work?in?other?guild?area?of?
 expertise??a?Sculpteur?for?example?could?not?gild?his?carvings,?frames?carved?by?Menuisiers?
 would?be?passed?over?to?the?Peintre?doreur?for?finishing.??Frequently,?as?many?as?four?
 different?guilds?would?be?responsible?for?producing?a?single?piece?of?furniture.42????
 There?were?four?exceptions?to?the?rules?set?out?by?the?guilds:???
 ?
 ? First?of?all,?as?official?head?of?all?guilds?(the??proprietor?of?all?m?tiers?),?the?only?person?
 who?could?interfere?with?guild?rules?was?the?King.?43??At?times?the?King?would?give?
 someone?special?privileges;?for?example?he?might?grant?a?foreign?craftsman?the?ability?
 to?work?in?France?or?break?guild?rules.44??One?famous?example?was?Andre?Boulle,?who?
 was?allowed?to?work?in?several?different?areas?such?as?gilding,?bronzing,?cabinetmaking?
 and?veneering.45??In?addition?to?guild?privileges,?foreign?craftsmen?who?worked?for?the?
 crown?could?become?naturalized?Frenchmen?after?10?years.??
 ? Sometimes?craftsmen?were?given?workspace?by?the?crown???Boulle?for?example?worked?
 in?the?Louvre?and?Oeben?worked?in?the?Gobelin?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 41?It?should?be?noted?that?other?guilds?were?suggested?in?some?of?the?readings.??For?example,?there?have?been?
 several?mentions?of??turners??as?being?a?separate?guild.??It?would?also?be?reasonable?to?assume?that?
 glasscutters?and?grinders?would?form?a?guild,?leather?workers?would?form?yet?another.??However,?research?to?
 date?has?not?identified?them?by?name.???
 42?Given?this?complicated?process?and?the?strict?adherence?to?these?rules,?it?seems?inevitable?that?the?
 Merchand?Merciers?positions?would?be?needed.??Someone?had?to?take?responsibility?for?the?coordination?and?
 the?motivation?for?making?this?system?work?properly.??
 43?M.?Coutinho,?18th?Century?French?Furniture,?Calouste?Gulbenkian?Museum,?Lisbon,?1999,?p?52.?
 44?M.?Coutinho,?18th?Century?French?Furniture,?and?Interview?with?Hirst,?M.,?Curator,?Waddesdon?Manor,?Nov.?
 2004.?
 45?F.?Watson,?The?Wallace?Collection?Catalogue,?Furniture.?P.?10.?
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?166?
 ?
 ? The?crown?could?also?nominate?craftsmen?to?be?Marchands?Suivant?la?Couver.46???
 Baumhouer?was?an?example?of?someone?who?assumed?this?privileged?position.47?
 ? Greater?freedom?was?also?allowed?to?those?craftsmen?working?in?the?outlying?areas?of?
 Paris?(e.g.?the?Abbey?of?Saint?Antoine?de?Champs?in?the?Faubourg?Saint?Antoine?area)??
 ?
 Guild?members?like?Cressent?who?tried?to?break?guild?rules?were?taken?to?court???Cressent?
 was?taken?to?court?three?times?for?making?his?own?bronze?pieces.48?
 ?
 What?is?clear?from?the?above?is?the?pervasive?power?of?the?Crown?which?meant?that?not?
 only?did?the?Royal?household?drive?fashion?by?example;?they?could?control?the?development?
 of?new?designs.?This?essentially?sets?up?a?quasi?official?system?for?top?down?diffusion?of?
 fashions?as?discussed?in?Chapter?II?(p.?44).?It?is?also?generally?thought?that?because?guilds?
 held?monopolies?they?served?to?stifle?creativity?and?to?limit?competition.?However?it?has?
 more?recently?been?argued?that?this?was?not?the?case;?there?were?innovations?that?took?
 place?in?a?guild?driven?economy.49???Setting?this?aside,?it?is?true?that?the?guilds?were?
 generally?restrictive;?for?example?they?controlled?the?process?of?becoming?a?master?or?
 ?Maitre?,?a?long?and?difficult?business?which?did?not?encourage?new?ideas?or?techniques.50??
 To?become?a?full?member?and?to?run?a?shop?(to?become?a?Maitre)?one?had?to?be?
 apprenticed?for?6?years?(from?the?age?of?12???14),?during?which?time?the?apprentice?s?
 parents?had?to?pay?the?apprentice?s?Maitre.??After?this,?the?apprentice?became?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 46?For?example,?an??b?niste?under?this?program?could?not?make?his?own?brass?accessories.?
 47?Internal?documents?from?the?Wallace?Collection,?by?Peter?Hughes?for?a?presentation?in?1995.?
 48?Interview?with?C.?Sargentson,?on?13/01/05.?
 49?The?following?two?papers?show?some?recent?thinking?of?how?guilds?actually?provided?an?environment?where?
 innovation?did?take?place?despite?some?restrictive?practices.???
 ???????G.?Richardson,?Guilds,?Laws,?and?Markets?for?Manufactured?Merchandise?in?Late??
 ???????Medieval?England,?Explorations?in?Economic?History?(Elsevier),?No.?41,?2004.??And??
 ??????S.?Epstein,?Craft?Guilds,?Apprenticeships?and?Technological?Change?in?Pre?industrial?Europe.,?The?
 ??????Journal?of?Economic?History,?Vol?58,?No?3.,?1998,?pp.?684?713.?
 50?To?become?a?Maitre,?one?had?to?become?an?apprentice?for?6?years,?during?which?time?someone,?usually?the?
 apprentice?s?parents,?had?to?pay?the?shop?Maitre.??After?this,?the?apprentice?became??compagnonnage??for?
 anywhere?between?3?(if?he?was?related?to?a?guild?member)?and?6?(if?he?was?not?related?to?a?guild?member)?
 years,?during?which?time?he?could?earn?some?money?and?he?could?switch?shops?to?which?he?worked?(only?with?
 permission?and?a?letter?from?the?prior?shop.)?He?could?only?become?the?Maitre?once?the?Jure?had?evaluated?
 his?work,?and?he?paid?his?fees?AND?there?was?a?space?available.??(See:?F.?Watson,?Wallace?Collection?
 Catalogues:?Furniture,?William?Clowes?&?Sons,?LTD,?London,?1956,?p.?lvi??lix).?
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?167?
 ?
 ?compagnonnage??for?anywhere?between?3???6?years?(3?if?he?was?related?to?a?guild?member?
 and?6?if?he?not),?during?which?time?he?could?earn?money?and?he?could?(with?the?permission?
 of?his?Maitre)?switch?shops.?He?could?only?become?the?Maitre?once?a?Jure?(a?judge)?had?
 evaluated?his?work,?he?paid?his?fees?AND?there?was?a?space?available.?51??According?to?A.?
 Pradere?(1989),?to?become?a?master,?an?unconnected?journeyman?paid?33%?more?than?his?
 annual?journeyman?s?salary?to?become?a?master.52??
 ?
 ?However?as?noted?above,?Louis?XIV?encourage?competition?between?the?three?groups???the?
 guilds,?the?Royal?Workshops?and?the?protected?areas.??In?addition,?while?Menuisiers?were?
 primarily?French?natives?the?cabinetmakers?in?the?Foubourg?area?and?in?the??b?niste?guild?
 tended?to?be?foreign?born.??This?in?itself?resulted?in?competition?as?the?natural?born?French?
 guild?members?had?an?instinctive?dislike?for?immigrants?who?brought?new?ideas?and?skills.?
 Many?immigrants?also?became?guild?members?despite?the?very?substantial?cost?involved.53???
 As?F.?Watson?notes,?this?system?was?to?produce?the?most?advanced?and?best?paid?
 craftsmen?in?the?world.54??
 ?
 Skilled?craftsmen?had?a?far?greater?chance?of?making?a?fortune?there?(in?Paris)?than?in?any?other?
 capital?city.??The?great?cabinet?maker?Riesener,?for?instance,?received?commissions?from?the?Crown?to?
 total?of?close?on?a?million?livres?in?the?decade?1775??1785,?and?Gouthi?re,?the?celebrated?gilt?bronze?
 worker?was?able?to?build?himself?two?luxurious?hotels?priv?es?in?Paris?in?the?years?preceding?the?
 Revolution.??Such?wealth,?although?exceptional,?far?exceeded?anything?that?a?Chippendale?or?a?Vile?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 51?F.?Watson,?Wallace?Collection?Catalogues:?Furniture,?p.?lvi??lix.?
 52?Specifically,?those?journeymen?who?were?complete?outsiders?to?the?guild?had?to?pay?530?livres?when?his?
 annual?salary?as?a?journeyman?was?400?livres.??(A.?Pradere,?French?Furniture?Makers,?The?Art?of?the?Ebeniste?
 from?Louis?XIV?to?the?Revolution,?p.?13.)?
 53?Jean?Henri?Riesener,?his?master,?Jean?Fran?ois?Oeben,?Adam?Weissweiller,?and?Guillaume?Benneman?are?
 some?of?the?most?important?examples?of?guild?masters?who?were?born?outside?of?France.??According?to?F.?
 Knothe,?20%?of?the?cabinetmakers?in?the?Faubourg?Saint?Antoine?area?were?German.??Looking?at?it?from?
 another?perspective?half?of?the?German?immigrants?in?the?area?were?cabinetmakers.???See?F.?Knothe,?French?
 Furniture???Foreign?Artisans?in?Paris?during?the?Ancien?Regime,?The?Magazine?Antiques,?Feb,?2009,?pp.?46?51?
 for?a?discussion?of?this?topic.?
 54?In?addition?to?the?money?that?could?be?made?in?Paris,?there?were?probably?several?other?contributing?
 factors?to?this?influx?of?cabinetmakers?to?Paris.??First?of?all,?Louis?XIV?encouraged?immigration?by?inviting?the?
 most?talented?artisans?from?other?countries;?another?possible?factor?was?the?fact?that?Marie?Antoinette?and?
 several?leading?cabinetmakers?in?France?were?either?Austrian?or?German,?which?offered?some?encouragement?
 to?the?culturally?similar?`groups?of?immigrants.??It?is?unclear?as?to?why?the?influx?of?immigrants?seemed?to?have?
 the?greatest?impact?on?cabinetmaking?and?not?chair?making.??
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?168?
 ?
 could?ever?hope?to?earn?in?England?and?in?poorer?countries?like?German?craftsmen?were?far?worse?off.?
 55?
 ?
 Another?result?of?this?system?was?that?it?produced?some?of?the?greatest?furniture?of?this?
 period???what?Viaux?for?example?refers?to?as?the??golden?age?of?French?furniture?.56?As?she?
 notes:??
 ?
 ?Other?countries?were?quick?to?recognize?this?supremacy;?foreign?rulers?and?princes?(Catherine?II,?the?
 Elector?of?Bavaria,?etc.),?placed?orders?with?Parisian??b?niste?to?furnish?their?castles?and?palaces;?57?
 ?
 Thus,?it?seems?that?the?French?guild?system???though?not?without?its?problems???did?produce?
 advanced?skills,?innovation?and?the?opportunity?for?craftsmen?to?earn?large?amounts?of?
 money???inevitably?this?prospect?attracted?many?immigrant?artisans.??During?the?Ancien?
 Regime,?France?had?made?a?very?conscious?effort?to?develop?the?artistic?and?crafts?skills.?58??
 This?was?inspired?by?Henry?IV?who?first?encouraged?craftsmen?(circa?1608)?to?move?to?Paris,?
 offering?craftsmen?workspace?in?the?Louvre.59??As?noted?above,?Louis?XIV?was?to?follow?his?
 example,?using?the?aesthetic?domain?as?a?way?of?establishing?France?s?pre?eminence?on?the?
 European?stage.?60???Again,?this?represents?a?systematic?approach,?in?part,?to?create?a?top?
 down?diffusion?system?of?driving?fashion.??Towards?the?end?of?the?C18th,?the?influence?of?
 the?French?crown?was?increasingly?overtaken?by?an?affluent?bourgeoisie?who?had?the?
 financial?means?to?purchase?furniture?and?other?luxury?goods.?61?At?the?same?time,?the?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 55?F.?Watson,?1959,?Makers??Stamps?on?French?Furniture?of?the?18th?Century:??What?they?are?and?`what?they?
 Signify,?pp.?221???225.?
 56?J.?Viaux,?French?Furniture,?Ernest?Benn,?LTD.,?London,?1964,?p.?96.?
 57?J.?Viaux,?French?Furniture,?p.?96.?
 58?Literally?this?translates?to??old?order??or??old?regime?.??This?is?a?French?description?of?the?social?and?political?
 system?that?operated?before?the?revolution?in?1789.??Primarily,?it?refers?to?the?era?when?France?was?ruled?by?
 the?Bourbon?kings?in?the?C17th?and?C18th.?????
 59?Henry?IV,?A?Protestant,?issued?the??Edict?of?Nantes?,?which?allowed?Protestants?to?work?in?France?without?
 bias?on?April?13,?1598.??Thus,?the?so?called?Huguenots?were?able?to?flourish?and?develop?their?craft?skills.??Later?
 (1685)?Louis?XIV?was?to?revoke?this?edict,?forcing?many?of?these?highly?skilled?workers?to?move?to?England?
 where?they?added?to?England?s?skill?base.??
 60?L.?Auslander,?Taste?and?Power:??Furnishing?Modern?France,?The?University?of?California?Press,?Los?Angeles,?
 1996,?p.?32.?
 61?L.?Auslander,?L.,?Taste?and?Power:??Furnishing?Modern?France,?p.?33.?
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?169?
 ?
 stranglehold?held?by?the?guild?system?began?to?wane?in?the?face?of?the?increasingly?elegant?
 and?fashionable?furniture?produced?outside?of?Paris?in?the?Faubourg?Saint?Antoine?district.62???
 The?Marchands?Merciers?played?an?interesting?role?in?this?change.?It?should?be?pointed?out?
 that?the?Marchands?Merciers?were?technically?guilds?but?they?did?not?themselves?make?
 anything???essentially?they?performed?many?of?the?functions?of?the?modern?company.??
 However,?the?Marchands?Merciers?could?sell?furniture?made?by?craftsmen?from?the?
 Faubourg?Saint?Antoine?(non?guild?members)?and?they?could?sell?unstamped?furniture?
 made?by?guild?members,?the?expensive?products?of?the?guilds?were?increasingly?undercut.63??
 Several?Marchands?Merciers?were?known?to?sell?to?the?Garde?Meuble?Royal?like?Simon?
 Philippe?Piorier?(1720?1785)?and?Dominique?Daguerre?(1740???1796).64???
 ?
 While?Auslander?is?one?author?to?argue?that?Louis?XIV?set?up?the?rival?guild?and?non?guild?
 groups?in?order?to?play?one?against?the?other,?it?is?unclear?as?to?whether?or?not?powers?
 allowed?the?Marchands?Merciers?was?part?of?that?plan.?65??There?are?two?other?interesting?
 aspects?of?the?Marchand?Merciers?that?are?worth?considering.??First?of?all,?they?were?
 becoming?very?powerful?entities?toward?the?end?of?the?reign?of?Louis?XVI.??C.?Sargentson?for?
 example?notes?their?extensive?spending?and?the?considerable?inheritances?left?to?their?
 descendants?when?they?passed?away.66???Secondly,?it?was?the?Marchand?Merciers?who?were?
 to?develop?the?idea?of?the?department?store?and?play?their?part?in?developing?the?
 democratic?culture?of?consumption?with?which?we?are?so?familiar?today.??
 ?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 62?This?is?based?on?the?observation?that?many?of?the?Marchand?Merciers?were?going?to?the?non?guilded?
 craftsmen?to?obtain?furniture?at?a?lower?cost.??It?is?also?suspected?that?even?Riesener?went?to?these?shops?for?
 furniture.??
 63?It?has?been?suggested?that?the?guild?members,?because?they?had?to?pay?a?duty?for?each?piece?they?had?
 stamped,?that?they?sometimes?sold?pieces?through?the?Marchands?Merciers?unstamped?at?a?reduced?price.??
 Also,?the?guilds?them?selves?would?sell?on?furniture?that?they?impounded?from?their?members?(See?P.?Hughes,?
 (date?unknown)?Notes?for?a?speech?on?guilds?for?The?Wallace?Collection?from?their?files?as?obtained?via?Paul?
 Tear.)??While?no?official?article?from?an?accredited?journal?was?found?to?confirm?this,?it?does?seem?logical?that?
 these?processes?would?occur.?
 64?C.?Sargentson,?Merchants?and?Luxury?Markets.?
 65?L.?Auslander,?Taste?and?Power:??Furnishing?Modern?France.?
 66?C.?Sargentson,?Merchants?and?Luxury?Markets.?
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?170?
 ?
 D. Reisener?s?Business?
 ?
 The?way?in?which?Riesener?obtained?his?position?as??b?niste?du?Roi?was?very?interesting.???
 Reisener,?a?German?immigrant,?came?to?Paris?to?work?for?the?guild?maitre?Jean?Francois?
 Oeben?(1721?1763)?who?worked?exclusively?for?the?Royal?family.67?When?Oeben?died?in?
 1763,?his?widow?took?over?the?workshop.??In?1768,?Reisener?married?Oeben?s?widow,?
 inherited?his?workshop?and?with?it?his?contract?with?the?crown.?68??The?first?piece?that?he?
 completed?for?the?Royal?family?was?a?bureau???cylinder?begun?by?Oeben?in?1760?and?
 completed?by?Riesener?in?1769?(see?Figure?4?2).?This?bureau???cylinder?is?a?very?elaborately?
 decorated?Rococo?designed?desk?with?a?number?of?new?and?technically?sophisticated?
 features.??For?example,?one?turn?of?lock?on?the?roll?top?locks?the?roll?top,?while?a?second?
 turn?locks?all?of?the?drawers.??It?also?has?writing?surfaces?that?come?out?of?the?sides?and?the?
 back?so?a?number?of?people?could?take?dictation?from?the?King?at?one?and?the?same?time.??
 The?bureau?contains?(of?course)?a?secret?compartment.???The?decoration?is?probably?more?
 elaborate?than?anything?that?Riesener?would?ever?attempt?again?in?his?career;?marquetry?
 panels?cover?every?surface?with?symbols?representing?France,?the?arts,?science,?military?
 prowess,?as?well?as?floral?favours?and?homages?to?the?King.??The?ormolu?that?covers?the?
 bureau?is?bold?and?ornate?with?a?clock?on?the?top,?six?vases?across?the?top?gallery,?garlands?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 67?Riesener?s?assent?to?become?a?guilded?cabinetmaker?was?probably?not?typical.??One?more?common?way?
 was?to?inherit?the?privilege?through?ones?father.???Another?more?common?approach,?than?Riesener?s?is?
 represented?by?the?story?of?Jean?Coulon.??Coulon?was?born?near?the?Faubourg?area?outside?of?Paris?and?was?
 the?son?of?a?gardener.??However,?he?was?able?to?work?his?way?from?the?Faubourg?Saint?Antoine?to?become?a?
 Parisian?guild?member?through?a?series?of?progressions?which?involved?marrying?into?good?families?and?he?
 slowly?bought?shops?in?the?central?Paris?area?in?1716.??It?was?also?approximately?this?time?that?Jean?Coulon?
 became?a?marchand??b?niste??(both?a?maker?and?a?retailer?of?furniture?recognized?by?the?Parisian?guilds).??
 However,?it?should?be?pointed?out?that?the?guilds?were?very?strongly?controlled?by?leading?guild?families?or?
 dynasties,?which?made?any?strong?progression?very?difficult?for?Coulon,?and?most?other?cabinetmakers.??
 Reisener?was?unusual?in?that?he?was?an?outsider?who?broke?through?the?ranks?of?the?guilds?dynasties?via?the?
 death?of?his?shop?owner?(Oeben)?and?his?subsequent?marriage?to?the?owner?s?wife.?D.?Alcouffe,?Jean?Coulon,?
 Ma?tre??b?niste?and?Marchand?Mercier,?The?Journal?of?the?Furniture?History?Society,?Vol.29,?1993,?pp.?11?37.?
 68?To?make?this?marriage?even?more?important?to?Riesener,?Oeben?s?widow?was?also?the?sister?of?the?famous?
 furniture?maker?Roger?Vandercruse?Lacroix?(R.V.L.C??1750?1789)?and?the?sister?in?law?(from?her?first?marriage?
 to?Oeben)?of?another?famous?cabinetmaker?Martin?Carlin?(d.?1785).??This?obviously?placed?Riesener?in?a?very?
 solid?position?amongst?French?cabinetmakers.?See?A.?Pradere??(Translated?by?Perran?Wood),?French?Furniture?
 Makers:?The?Art?of?the??b?niste?from?Louis?XIV?to?the?Revolution,?p.?372.?
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?171?
 ?
 on?the?sides,?acanthus?leaves?on?the?drawers,?together?with?several?candle?stands?and?
 figures?mounted?at?various?points?on?
 the?bureau.?
 ?
 After?completing?this?masterpiece,?
 the?quantity?of?furniture?ordered?by?
 the?Royal?family?remained?small?until?
 the?retirement?of?the??b?niste?
 Ordinaire?du?Roi,?Gilles?Jobert?(1689?
 1775).??For?the?next?10?years?Reisener?
 was?the?only?furniture?maker?to?
 supply?the?crown???that?is?until?the?
 Garde?Meuble?started?questioning?his?
 prices.?There?has?been?some?
 speculation?as?to?how?this?came?about.??What?is?known?is?that?questions?were?first?raised?in?
 1784?when?Thierry?de?Ville?d?Avray?became?the?new?intendant?general?des?Meubles?de?la?
 Couronne,?replacing?Pierre?Elisabeth?de?Fountanieu?whose?family?had?held?this?position?
 since?the?time?of?Louis?XIV.??Verlet?suggests?that?d?Avray?wanted?to?impress?the?King?by?
 reducing?expenditures?on?furniture?(Riesener?was?known?to?be?expensive).69??A.?Pradere?
 suggests?that?it?was?also?at?this?time?that?several?younger?cabinetmakers???specifically?
 Guillaume?Beneman?(1750?1811)?and?Adam?Weisweiler?(1750???1810)???rose?to?fashion;?all?
 of?whom?were?a?deal?more?affordable?than?Riesener.??Roentgen?similarly?emerged?at?this?
 time?whose?meubles???m?canisme?were?regarded?as?superior?to?Riesener?s.?70???In?any?case,?
 in?1786,?Riesener?lost?his?title?of??b?niste?du?Roi?after?d?Avray?wrote?a?scathing?report?on?
 Riesener,?faulting?his?quality?and?criticizing?his?use?of?subcontractors.71??
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 69?Verlet,?P.?(Translated?from?German?by?K.?Riall),?M?bel?von?J.?H.?Riesener,?p.9.?
 70?A.?Pradere??(Translated?by?Perran?Wood),?French?Furniture?Makers,?The?Art?of?the??b?niste?from?Louis?XIV?to?
 the?Revolution,?p.?374.?
 71?A.?Pradere?quotes?a?description?written?by?Thierry?de?Ville?d?Avray?in?a?letter?which?starts?by?listing?the?
 recent?acquisitions?from?Riesener,?pointing?out?problems,?lack?of?quality?and?the?prices?of?the?Riesener?pieces.???
 Then?Thierry?observes:??
 ?
 Figure?4?2:??The?Bureau?du?Roi,?the?first?piece?of?furniture?that?
 Riesener?delivered?to?Louis?XVI.??This?piece?established?his?
 reputation?with?the?Royal?household?and?led?to?Riesener?
 becoming?the??b?niste?Ordinaire?du?Roi.?
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?172?
 ?
 ?
 However,?it?has?been?
 calculated?that?Reisener?
 delivered?approximately?700?
 pieces?of?furniture?during?the?
 time?in?which?Riesener?was?
 the??b?niste?du?Roi???no?mean?
 achievement.?72???Over?half?of?
 these?were?pieces?of?writing?
 furniture,?which?confirms?the?
 importance?that?writing?was?
 during?this?period?(350?were?
 simple?writing?tables?while?51?
 were?secr?taire???abattant).73??
 ?This?translated?into?a?very?
 substantial?amount?of?billings?
 during?this?time;?more?than?
 877,000?livre!???As?this?shows,?
 Riesener?was?kept?fairly?busy?
 by?the?Royal?household,?as?he?
 was?pretty?much?the?only?
 supplier?of?furniture?for?the?
 Royal?household???often?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 I?notice?with?regard?to?Benneman?that?Riesener?buys?his?furniture?in?the?Faubourg?Saint?Antoine?and?
 thus,?if?instead?of?this?they?were?made?in?Benneman?s?workshop,?they?would?consequently?be?more?
 robust?and?need?replacing?less?frequently.??
 ?
 A.?Pradere??(Translated?by?Perran?Wood),?French?Furniture?Makers,?The?Art?of?the??b?niste?from?Louis?XIV?to?
 the?Revolution,?p.?373.?Who?is?quoting?the?French?Archives?National?number?01340.??
 72?This?is?based?on?a?count?of?all?of?the?furniture?delivered?to?one?of?the?Royal?households?during?the?period?of?
 1774?and?1784.??While?we?know?that?Riesener?delivered?furniture?to?Marie?Antoinette?after?that?date,?it?was?
 not?a?large?number?of?pieces.??Verlet,?P.?(Translated?from?German?by?K.?Riall),?M?bel?von?J.?H.?Riesener,?p.?9.?
 73?These?were?based?on?counts?of?the?writing?furniture?mentioned?in?the?journals?of?the?Garde?Meuble?
 between?1774?and?1784.?See?Appendix?H?for?more?details.??
 ?
 Figure?4?3:??Simple?worktable?by?Reisener?for?someone?who?
 worked?for?Louis?XVI.??The?top?photograph?shows?the?top?with?
 the?Trellis?design?as?well?as?the?pull?out?leather?top?work.?
 .surface.??
 ?
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?173?
 ?
 supplying?furniture?for?several?rooms?of?a?house?at?one?time.?Although?much?of?this?was?
 very?exclusive?and?very?high?end?pieces?for?use?by?the?Royal?family,?some?of?his?work?was?
 for?the?support?staff?and?therefore?was?relatively?plain?and?simple?in?design?and?decoration.??
 Both?Versailles?and?Nissim?de?Camondo?hold?a?number?of?such?pieces???see?for?example?the?
 table??pour?le?service?de?la?Reine??shown?in?Figure?4?3.??This?particular?writing?table?was?
 probably?made?for?one?of?Louis?XVI?s?personal?assistants?at?the?Chateau?Petit?Trianon.??
 Much?simpler?than?anything?commissioned?for?use?by?either?Louis?XVI?or?Marie?Antoinette,?
 it?has?a?solid?oak?carcass,?veneered?in?Mahogany?with?a?trellis?design?on?the?top?of?
 trapezoids?surrounded?by?boxwood?and?black?ebony?stringing.?It?is?decorated?with?simple?
 ormolu?feet,?knobs?on?the?pull?out?writing?surface,?and?surrounds?at?the?top?of?the?legs.??
 This?table?is?currently?to?be?found?at?Versailles?in?the?private?apartments?of?the?Queen.???
 ?
 Following?(See?Figure?4?4)?is?an?example?of?a?Bureau?plat?by?Riesener.??Like?the?table?
 described?above,?it?was?probably?commissioned?for?someone?in?the?service?of?Louis?XVI:?
 again,?note?the?lack?of?decoration.?However,?it?can?be?seen?that?Riesener?was?consistent?in?
 terms?of?the?quality?of?all?of?his?work?as?he?took?care?to?cover?the?dovetails?on?the?main?
 drawer?(not?shown).??Further?observation?reveals?how?carefully?the?drawers?were?
 Figure?4?4:?Worktable?for?an?assistant?to?Louis?XVI?by?Reisener.??The?first?picture?shows?the?
 side?with?the?burl?mahogany,?the?centre?picture?shows?the?top?with?a?leather?top?(this?was?
 originally?a?black?cloth).??Note?the?lack?of?decoration.?
 ?
 ?
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?174?
 ?
 constructed?and?the?care?with?which?the?materials?were?chosen.74??The?decoration?however?
 is?very?simple?with?a?few?brass?details?only;?no?ormolu?or?marquetry?work.??This?piece?also?
 has?simple?locks?that?only?turn?once?to?lock?the?single?drawer.75??
 ?
 There?is?little?to?know?how?Riesener?s?workshop?was?run?or?how?it?was?organized.??We?do?
 know?from?Garde?Meuble?records?that?he?took?workmen?with?him?on?his?trips?to?
 Versailles.76??We?can?surmise?that?because?the?French?workshops?generally?served?only?one?
 function?(because?of?guild?guidelines)?their?workshops?were?probably?smaller?than?
 comparable?English?workshops.??However,?Riesener?s?workshop?was?different?from?most?
 other?workshops?in?that?it?probably?made?other?items?(such?as?ormolu,?metal?pieces?such?as?
 locks,?etc.)?and?(of?course)?it?serviced?the?crown77.??As?a?result?it?can?be?assumed?that?
 Riesener?had?more?staff?than?most?other?French?workshops.??It?has?been?suggested?that?
 David?Roentgen?had?approximately?100?workers?in?his?workshop?in?Germany?and?like?
 Riesener,?he?had?people?who?produced?metalwork?and?ran?an?extremely?successful?
 workshop,?we?might?assume?that?Riesener?had?a?similar?number?of?employees.?78??
 ?
 E. Business?Conditions???England?
 ?
 As?discussed?above,?England?s?royal?family?did?not?take?a?lead?role?in?determining?the?
 fashionable?developments?of?the?late?C18th.79?Whereas?in?France?fashion?looked?to?the?
 Royal?family?in?England.?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 74?As?will?be?shown?later?(Chapter?V,?p.?286),?these?characteristics?are?common?to?many?of?Riesener?s?works.??
 75?As?seen?in?the?Bureau?du?Roi?and?in?pieces?discussed?in?Chapter?5,?Riesener?used?very?complex?locks?in?many?
 of?his?secr?taire???abattants?that?he?made?for?members?of?the?Royal?family.???
 76?Verlet,?P.?(Translated?from?German?by?K.?Riall),?M?bel?von?J.?H.?Riesener,?p.12.?
 77?The?reason?that?Riesener?could?perform?metal?work?within?his?own?workshop,?contrary?to?guild?regulations,?
 was?due?to?his?title?as??b?niste?du?roi.??
 78?See?Huth,?H.,?Roentgen?Furniture,?pp.?11?23?for?a?description?of?Roentgen?s?workshop.?In?addition?to?the?
 comparison?to?Roentgen?s?workshop,?the?large?number?of?pieces?that?Riesener?produced?during?this?time?
 would?suggest?a?large?work?force.??At?the?beginning?of?Appendix?G:?Secr?taire???Abattant?by?Riesener?
 Mentioned?in?the?Garde?de?Meuble.?
 79Few?of?the?royal?family?members?were?leaders?in?taste?or?fashion?as?the?French?kings?were.???The?only?rival?to?
 George?IV?in?his?knowledge?and?appreciation?of?the?arts?was?Charles?I.?E.?Joy,?English?Furniture:??1800???1851,?
 Sotheby?Parke?Bernet?Publications,?London,?1977.?p.?183.?
 ?
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?175?
 ?
 ?
 ?Cultural?leadership?had?become?dispersed?among?a?multiplicity?of?designers?and?craftspeople,?
 manufacturers?and?shopkeepers,?noble?patrons?and?Grub?Street?Critics?80???
 ?
 As?noted?earlier?(Chapter?3,?p.?118),?the?Neo?Classical?period?was?lead?by?three?architects???
 James?Stuart,?Sir?William?Chambers?and?(most?importantly)?Robert?Adam.81???No?less?
 influential?was?the?work?of?Thomas?Chippendale?(1718?1779)?who?s??Gentleman?&?Cabinet?
 Maker?s?Director??was?to?prove?hugely?successful.??Described?by?C.?Gilbert?as?a??publicity?
 stunt??designed?to?attract?attention?to?his?business,?Chippendale?produced?three?editions?of?
 his?Director?published?in?1754,?1755?and?1762.?82???While?the?first?two?editions?were?
 identical,?the?third?included?a?number?of?Neo?Classical?designs,?showing?the?influence?of?
 Adam?and?his?compatriots.??
 ?
 Chippendale?s?Director?was?followed?by?those?of?Thomas?Sheraton?(1751???1806).?Starting?in?
 1791?he?published?four?volumes?of?"The?Cabinet?Maker's?and?Upholsterer's?Drawing?Book?,?
 followed?in?1803?by?"The?Cabinet?Dictionary"?(a?compendium?of?instructions?on?the?
 techniques?of?cabinet?and?chair?making)?and?finally?by?the?"Cabinet?Maker,?Upholsterer?and?
 General?Artist's?Encyclopaedia",?published?in?1805.?These?highly?successful?publications?
 were?supplemented?in?1788?by??The?Cabinet?Maker?and?Upholsterers?Guide??by?George?
 Hepplewhite?(1727????1786)?published?posthumously?by?his?wife?Alice.?Two?further?editions?
 were?followed?in?1789?and?1790,?indicating?something?of?the?appetite?in?England?for?these?
 texts.?Interestingly?enough,?there?were?books?on?furniture?designs?published?in?France?but?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 Regarding?the?fashion?leadership?in?furniture?by?George?I?to?George?III:??
 ?
 ??neither?George?I?s?court?nor?those?of?his?two?successors(his?son?George?II?and?his?great?grandson?
 George?III)?were?crucial?sites?of?national?cultural?display,?in?the?manner?of?Versailles.???
 ?
 M.?Snodin,?and?J.?Styles,?Design?and?the?Decorative?Arts:??Britain?1500???1900,?V?&?A?Publications,?London,?
 2001,?p.?162.?
 80?M.?Snodin,?and?J.?Styles,?Design?and?the?Decorative?Arts:??Britain?1500???1900,?p.?162.?
 81?It?is?interesting?to?note?that?not?only?did?this?differ?from?France?during?this?period,?but?the?fact?that?three?
 architects?lead?the?Neo?Classical?fashion?was?different?from?the?prior?Rococo?period?where?architects?did?not?
 take?up?the?style.??Instead?it?was?designers?and?draftsman?who?promoted?that?style.??For?example,?
 Chippendale?s?first?book?on?furniture?style?was?essentially?a?devise?to?promote?the?Rococo?style.??
 82?C.?Gilbert,?The?Life?and?Works?of?Thomas?Chippendale,?p.?26.?
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?176?
 ?
 these?were?technical?books?aimed?at?the?furniture?makers?themselves?and?they?did?not?
 enjoy?the?wide?currency?of?the?English?texts?described?above.83??
 ?
 In?England,?architecture?had?(historically)?not?dictated?what?the?furniture?was?to?look?like84.??
 However?that?began?to?change?during?the?Neo?Classical?period?as?architects?rose?to?
 prominence?and?began?to?exert?increasing?influence?over?furniture?and?interior?decor.??For?
 example?in?package?of?letters?and?memos?dated?1772?by?Sir?Rowland?Winn?to?Robert?Adam?
 regarding?Nostell?Priory?House,?Winn?asked?Adam?whom?he?should?employ?to?provide?the?
 furniture.85???In?his?reply?Adam?recommended?Chippendale???together?with?Adam?himself86.?
 In?fact,?the?close?cooperation?(and?sometimes?competition)?between?architects?and?
 cabinetmakers?can?be?seen?as?a?recurring?theme?in?this?period87.??Interestingly?enough,?in?
 the?decoration?of?Kedleston?Hall?in?Derbyshire?(1760?s)?both?Robert?Adam?and?John?Linnnell?
 submitted?designs?for?sofas?for?the?drawing?room???Linnell?s?designs?were?chosen?in?this?
 instance.?Similarly,?William?Chambers?designed?the?furniture?for?Albany?House?in?London?in?
 competition?with?Chippendale.??Part?of?Chamber?s?argument?to?the?owner,?Lord?Melbourne?
 was?that?the?architect?was?better?educated?and?better?trained?and?therefore?he?had?a?
 better?understanding?of?Neo?Classical?designs?than?Chippendale???a?mere?craftsman.?88??
 ?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 83?Probably?the?best?known?French?book?on?furniture?from?the?C18th?was?A.?Roubo?s??l?Art?Du?Menuisier??(See?
 A.?Roubo,?l?Art?Du?Menuisier,?Leonce?Laget,?Paris,?1977?(reprint?from?original?1765?1775).)?
 84?This?statement?specifically?addresses?the?decorative?elements?of?the?furniture.??There?were,?after?the?1666?
 fire?of?London,?regulations?that?regarded?some?constructional?elements?of?the?furniture.?
 85?C.?Gilbert,?The?Life?and?Works?of?Thomas?Chippendale,?p.?4.?
 86?It?is?known?that?Adam?charged?a?very?high?fee?for?designing?furniture,?which?is?probably?why?many?of?his?
 clients?decided?to?go?directly?to?the?furniture?maker?for?their?designs.??Chippendale?for?example?did?not?charge?
 for?the?designs,?in?fact?it?appeared?to?be?part?of?the?process?of?getting?the?customer?to?sign?off?on?the?work?
 before?it?was?executed.?See?C.?Gilbert,?The?Life?and?Works?of?Thomas?Chippendale,?p.?987?
 87?In?addition?to?Adam,?Chambers?for?example?worked?with?a?number?of?furniture?makers?and?on?occasion?he?
 was?very?critical?of?them?and?on?occasion?in?competition?with?them?(Harris,?J.?and?Snodin,?M.?(ed.),?Sir?William?
 Chambers:??Architect?to?George?III,?Yale?University?Press,?New?Haven?CT,?USA?and?London,?1997,?pp?163???185.)?
 88?P.?Kirkham,?The?London?Furniture?Trade:??1700?1870,?The?Furniture?History?Society/W?S?Maney?and?Sons,?
 Ltd,?Leeds,?P.?99.?
 88?As?mentioned?before,?the?architects?frequently?had?exposure?to?classical?designs.??Adam,?Chambers,?and?
 Stuart?were?three?examples.??All?three?took?their?grand?tours?to?learn?about?different?forms?of?classical?designs?
 and?Chambers?when?to?a?formal?school?in?Paris.??The?furniture?makers?were?only?possibly?exposed?to?classical?
 themes?through?design?schools?or?from?the?architects?that?worked?on?the?same?houses?as?the?furniture?
 makers.??Thus,?this?statement?was?probably?accurate.??
 ?
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?177?
 ?
 Regardless?of?the?system,?the?first?step?in?the?process?of?commissioning?furniture?whether?it?
 be?from?the?architect?or?the?Garde?de?Meuble?or?a?leading?furniture?maker,?was?the?design.??
 This?put?those?with?any?training?in?what?we?now?call?design?at?an?advantage?compared?to?
 those?without?any?such?skills.??The?act?of?preparing?detailed?plans?requires?basic?
 mathematical?skills?as?well?as?the?ability?to?translate?two?dimensional?drawings?to?three?
 dimensional?objects.??Again?this?was?fairly?advanced?skill?which?was?part?of?the?basic?
 training?of?the?Academy?in?France?but?was?only?just?beginning?to?being?promoted?by?the?
 government?in?England?at?that?time.89??
 ?
 It?is?not?clear?how?Chippendale?acquired?his?considerable?skills,?however?it?is?believed?that?
 he?might?have?attended?schools?in?London?or?leaned?extensively?on?the?skills?of?artists?
 resident?around?St.?Martin?s?Lane,?where?Chippendale?s?workshop?was?to?be?found?and?the?
 St.?Martin?s?Lane?Academy?was?established.??C.?Gilbert?suggests?that?Chippendale?may?have?
 learned?his?drawing?skills?from?Matthias?Darly,?for?example.90??Kimball?and?Donnell?argue?on?
 the?other?hand?that?Chippendale?drew?inspiration?from?the?work?of?artists?such?as?Matthias?
 Lock?and?H.?Copland,?both?of?whom?produced?work?in?the?French?taste.91??Although?less?
 likely,?it?is?not?impossible?that?Chippendale?acquired?some?training?in?draughtsmanship?
 during?his?apprenticeship?in?Yorkshire.92.??However,?what?is?clear?is?that?Chippendale?
 received?some?kind?of?artistic?training,?as?he?was?able?to?produce?so?accomplished?a?book,?
 so?early?in?his?career.93???
 ?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 89?A.?Puetz,?Design?Instruction?for?Artisans?in?Eighteenth?Century?Britain,?Journal?of?Design?History,?Vol?12,?No?
 3,?1999,?pp.?217?239.?
 90?C.?Gilbert,?The?Life?and?Works?of?Thomas?Chippendale,?pp.?5?6.?
 91?F.?Kimball,?F.,?and?E.?Donnell,?The?Creators?of?the?Chippendale?Style,?Metropolitan?Museum?Studies,?The?
 Metropolitian?Museum?of?Art,?NY,?Vol?I,?1928?1929,?pp.?115?154.?
 92?Little?is?known?about?Chippendale?s?early?training.??What?is?known?is?that?his?father?and?grandfather?were?
 either?joiners?or?carpenters.??Beyond?that?is?completely?speculative,?although?it?seems?likely?that?either?he?
 served?an?apprenticeship?or?received?some?kind?of?training?before?he?traveled?to?London.?See?C.?Gilbert,?The?
 Life?and?Works?of?Thomas?Chippendale,?pp.?3?5.?
 93?It?should?be?noted,?that?there?is?no?information?as?to?the?artistic?training?that?Riesener?received.??Most?likely?
 this?was?part?of?the?training?that?he?received?as?an?apprentice?to?Oeben.??Perhaps?he?received?some?training?in?
 Germany?before?he?moved?to?Paris?to?join?Oeben?s?workshop.??Did?Riesener?receive?additional?training?either?
 in?Germany?or?France?in?addition?to?his?work?in?Oeben?s?workshop???While?it?is?not?known,?it?is?probably?the?
 case?that?he?did?receive?such?training,?as?it?was?readily?available?to?Riesener.??
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?178?
 ?
 In?terms?of?furniture?then,?the?late?C18th?saw?two?entirely?different?modes?of?production?in?
 England?and?France.?While?France?still?adhered?to?the?guild?system,?in?England?the?old?
 medieval?guild?system?had?been?in?declining?for?many?years?and?the?C18th?represents?a?
 period?of?transition,?as?P.?Kirkham?notes:?
 ?
 ?In?1700,?the?guilds?still?retained?some?control?over?the?furniture?making?and?journeymen?furniture?
 makers?had?not?yet?organized?permanent?institutions?of?their?own.??In?the?early?18th?Century,?the?
 owner?of?a?furniture?making?firm?combined?the?roles?of?craftsman?and?manager,?as?well?as?that?of?
 designer?if?the?firm?originated?it?s?own?designs,?whereas?by?1870?these?three?functions?were?separate.?
 ?Furthermore,?the?1870s?mark?the?end?of?the?independence?of?local?trade?societies?of?London?
 furniture?makers?and?the?increasing?strength?of?nationally?organized?trade?unions.?94?
 ?
 ?As?they?declined?in?power,?craftsmen?lost?the?benefits?of?the?guilds???protection?from?
 employers;?support?in?emergencies;?the?setting?quality?standards?etc.??According?to?C.?
 Edwards,?by?the?late?C18th?the?guilds?had??faded?into?fraternal?associations?.95???It?was?with?
 this?in?mind?that?English?craftsmen?tried?to?organize?themselves?into?what?they?called?trade?
 societies.??As?P.?Kirkham?observes:??
 ?
 London?journeymen?had?begun?to?form?collective?organizations?outside?the?companies?in?order?to?
 protect?and?improve?their?wages?and?working?conditions,?to?provide?some?security?against?sickness?
 and?unemployment?and?to?protect?their?trade?or??mystery?.96?
 ?
 ?While?these?new?organisations?retained?a?historical?connection?with?the?original?medieval?
 guilds,?they?were?generally?very?different?entities?despite?the?fact?that?some?found?
 themselves?enrolled?in?both?organisations.?97??In?many?ways?these?trade?organizations?were?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 94?P.?Kirkham,?The?London?Furniture?Trade:??1700?1870,?p.?2.?
 95?C.?Edwards,?Eighteenth?Century?Furniture,?Manchester?University?Press,?Manchester,?1996,?pp.?22.??
 96?P.?Kirkham,?The?London?Furniture?Trade:??1700?1870,?p.?147.?
 97?This?issue?has?been?debated?over?time.??While?some?(S?and?B.?Webb?in?The?History?of?Trade?Unionism)?claim?
 there?was?no?connection,?while?others?point?to?the?fact?that?in?the?C18th?many?Trade?Society?members?had?
 actually?been?trained?under?the?guild?rules?(P.?Kirkham,?The?London?Furniture?Trade:??1700?1870,?p.?148).?P.?
 Kirkham?also?observes?that?the?symbols?used?to?signify?the?different?trade?societies?were?similar?or?the?same?
 as?the?guilds?which?suggests?that?at?least?the?trade?societies?wanted?to?draw?a?connection?to?the?prior?
 organizations,?regardless?of?whether?this?connection?was?real?or?not.?P.?Kirkham,?The?London?Furniture?Trade:??
 1700?1870,?pp.?147???148.??
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?179?
 ?
 modelled?after?the?guilds?but?had?a?more??political??edge?to?them?that?was?(eventually)?to?
 find?full?expression?in?the?trade?union?activities?of?the?late?C19th?and?early?C20th.??The?
 growth?of?these?trade?associations?mirrored?the?growth?of?larger?furniture?making?firms?
 during?the?C18th.?By?the?end?of?the?C18th?the?new?trade?associations?had?taken?
 responsibility?for?developing?skills,?controlling?quality?and?protecting?their?members.??The?
 cabinetmakers?strike?of?1761?shows?just?how?organised?the?craftsmen?had?become.?98?
 Although?the?cabinetmakers?lost?this?particular?strike,?it?eventually?lead?to?the?
 establishment?of?The?London?Cabinet?Makers??Book?of?Prices?in?1788,?which?set?out?the?
 price?rate?list?for?the?shop?owners?to?pay?the?craftsmen.99???
 ?
 The?system?of?skills?training?also?changed?with?the?advent?of?the?new?trade?societies.??Prior?
 to?the?C18th,?the?basic?way?to?teach?craft?skills?was?through?an?apprenticeship?system?
 established?by?the?Statute?of?Artificers??in?1563,?whereby?a?young?apprentice?
 (approximately?14?years?of?age)?would?train?for?7?years.100??The?apprentice?signed?to?a?
 craftsman?and?a?contract?was?worked?out?between?the?apprentice,?his?parents?and?the?
 master???like?the?French?system?described?earlier.?Usually?the?parents?would?pay?for?the?
 training,?the?youth?would?be?placed?under?the?masters?care?for?nearly?all?matters,?often?
 living?in?with?the?master?and?his?family.101?In?England,?monies?paid?to?the?master?reflected?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 98?This?strike?was?not?the?first?organized?effort?by?the?trade?societies,?but?it?was?one?that?solidified?this?
 organization.??The?strike?was?for?the?production?of?new?piecework?prices,?which?was?related?to?reducing?the?
 number?of?hours?they?worked?and?increasing?their?pay.??The?owners?had?firm?support?by?the?government?and?
 beat?the?journeymen?through?several?legal?proceedings?such?as?fining?pub?owners?who?allowed?trade?
 meetings?to?take?place?at?their?facilities.?See?P.?Kirkham,?The?London?Furniture?Trade:??1700?1870,?p.?150.?
 99?See?P.?Kirkham,?The?London?Furniture?Trade:??1700?1870,?p.?150.??It?is?interesting?to?note?that?no?French?
 version?of?this?type?of?book?has?ever?turned?up?in?the?research?for?this?paper,?however,?it?was?discussed?in?
 Roubo?s?L?Art?de?Menuisier?that?a?workshop?should?develop?some?kind?of?standardized?approach?to?costing?
 out?work.??While?this?discussion?is?related?to?how?much?to?charge?the?client?in?order?to?insure?enough?profit?to?
 keep?the?workshop?in?business,?it?strongly?suggests?that?some?kind?of?standardized?approach?to?pricing?work?
 would?also?be?needed.?(See.?A.?Roubo,?l?Art?Du?Menuisier,?p.?1259.??This?is?also?discussed?in?M.?Str?mer,?'Bois?
 des?Indes'?and?the?Economics?of?Luxury?Furniture?In?the?time?of?David?Roentgen,?The?Burlington?Magazine,?Vol?
 120,?No?909,?1978,?pp.?799?807.)?
 100?Through?this?period,?the?late?C18th?this?system?was?changing.??Toward?the?end?of?this?period?some?craft?
 skills?stopped?participating?in?the?guild?apprentice?system?all?together,?some?reduced?the?time?to?five?years,?
 etc.??All?of?this?was?further?indication?of?both?the?changes?in?the?businesses?(shifting?from?craft?based?
 businesses?to?manufacturing?businesses???the?latter?requiring?lower?skilled?labor.)?and?See?P.?Kirkham,?The?
 London?Furniture?Trade:??1700?1870,?p.?40.?
 101?See?P.?Kirkham,?The?London?Furniture?Trade:??1700?1870,?pp.?41?42.?
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?180?
 ?
 his?standing,?although?on?occasion?the?master?would?not?charge?for?a?relative?s?child?or?the?
 son?of?a?close?friend.102?
 ?
 The?system?of?production?in?England?had?certain?commercial?advantages.?Unlike?France,?if?
 one?was?a?cabinetmaker?and?work?was?scarce,?one?could?turn?to?making?chairs,?carving?or?
 gilding.??There?are?numerous?examples?of?craftsmen?and?companies?diversifying?their?work.??
 Giles?Grendey?for?example?(1693?1780)?was?known?for?both?cabinet?work?and?a?chair?
 making,?Benjamin?Goodison?(active?from?1727?to?1767)?was?both?a?cabinetmaker?and?a?
 carver?gilder.??Of?course?Chippendale?provided?another?example?of?these??integrated?
 manufacturing?firms?.103??Others?included?Ince?and?Mayhew,?Gillows,?Vile?and?Cobb,?Linnell?
 and?Seddon.104??Furniture?workshops?at?this?time?even?incorporated?such?skills?as?metal?
 work?and?glass?cutting?and?grinding???Sophie?Von?La?Roche?reported?that?she?saw?metal?
 workers?in?Seddon?s?workshop.105??Usually?such?skilled?workers?would?be?hired?in.?106????
 ?
 There?follows?a?summary?of?the?primary?divisions?of?the?English?furniture?making?craft?
 trades?with?a?description?and?comments?about?each?one.??Several?thoughts?come?to?mind?in?
 reviewing?this.???
 ?
 ? The?first?point?that?should?be?made?is?that?unlike?France?with?its?guilds?and?sharply?
 demarcated?crafts,?England?did?not?have?such?delineation.??Many?historic?sources?such?
 as?dictionaries?or?trade?listings?do?not?even?mention?many?of?these?crafts,?thus?this?list?
 represents?a?collation?of?different?sources?in?combination?with?this?authors?own?
 interpretations.107???
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 102?Besides?how?well?known?the?shop?was?there?were?other?reasons?for?the?variations?in?the?prices?charged?to?
 taking?on?an?apprentice.??Apprentices?in?London?paid?more?than?those?outside?of?London,?certain?crafts?
 demanded?higher?payment?such?as?upholstery?received?the?highest?payments?and?larger?firms?could?ask?for?
 more?than?smaller?firms.??See?P.?Kirkham,?The?London?Furniture?Trade:??1700?1870,?pp.?43?44.?
 103?C.?Edwards,?Eighteenth?Century?Furniture,?pp.?18?19.?
 104?There?were?two?primary?sources?for?this?list?that?was?P.?Kirkham,?The?London?Furniture?Trade:??1700?1870,?
 pp.11?39?and?C.?Edwards,?Eighteenth?Century?Furniture,?pp?33?47.?
 105?S.?Von?La?Roche?(translated?by?Williams,?C.),?Sophie?in?London,?p.?173.?
 106?P.?Kirkham,?The?London?Furniture?Trade:??1700?1870,?pp.64?65.?
 107?In?the?1829?listing?of?occupations,??The?Book?of?Trades,?defines?the??cabinet?maker?as?one?who:??
 ?
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?181?
 ?
 ? Many?of?these?craft?categories?experienced?change?during?the?C18th.??For?example,?
 carving?appears?popular?at?the?beginning?of?the?C18th?(the?Rococo?era)?but?less?so?at?
 the?end?of?the?period?(the?Neo?Classical?era).108???
 ? There?were?probably?more?specialized?workers?than??officially?listed??in?France.?
 ? ?Even?with?this?extensive?list?of?artisan?skills?there?were?almost?certainly?further?
 specialisms?(such?as?Japanning)?which?tended?to?come?and?go?as?the?fashions?changed.????
 ?
 Table?3?2?
 English?Furniture?Worker?Descriptions?
 Name? Description/Comments?
 Frame?
 Maker/Joiner?
 This?was?the?main?wood?working?furniture?maker?in?the?17th?Century,?but?as?specialties?split?off?
 this?became?more?and?more?doing?jobs?such?as?making?window?shutters,?wall?paneling?and?other?
 non?furniture?work.?
 Chair?Maker? This?specialization?remained?closest?to?the?original?Joiner?group.??They?simply?made?the?frames?of?
 chairs,?which?were?then?upholstered?or?caned?and/or?decorated?by?another?specialist.??
 Cane?Chair?Maker? These?became?so?popular?in?the?early?part?of?the?C18th?and?the?specialty?built?up?as?a?separate?
 group,?however?as?the?desire?for?these?items?waned,?this?group?was?folded?back?into?chair?
 making.??
 Cabinetmaker? This?job?was?first?developed?in?Germany,?they?were?expert?at?veneering,?dove?tailing?and?'refined?
 techniques'?to?make?luxury?cabinets.??
 Cabinetmaker?
 Small?work/Fancy??
 Specialized?in?small?items?such?as?ladies'?work?tables,?work?boxes,?ladies'?desks,?portable?desks,?
 writing?tables,?jewel?boxes,?etc.?
 Inlay,?Marquetry?
 and?Boulle?Work?
 This?group?grew?out?of?cabinetmakers?and?actually?was?officially?part?of?that?group,?however?it?is?
 clear?that?some?cabinetmakers?did?specialize?in?this?area?of?work.??In?the?18th?Century,?this?group?
 did?separate?itself?from?Cabinetmakers?(e.g.?Furlohg,?Linning)?
 Clock?Case?Making? Again,?it?is?unclear?whether?this?was?a?separate?group?of?workers?from?'cabinetmakers'?however?
 some?did?specialize?in?this?area?although?clock?cases?were?made?by?those?who?did?not?claim?such?
 a?specialty?(e.g.?Gillow)?
 Upholstery? This?was?a?very?respected?group?of?the?furniture?making?community.??While?the?primary?function?
 was?to?stuff?and?cover?chairs,?upholsters?also?performed?work?in?fitting?beds,?hanging?window?
 curtains,?etc?and?this?remained?true?until?the?mid?19th?Century.???
 Gilding? The?gilder?used?one?of?two?methods?to?decorate?primarily?picture?and?mirror?frames.??The?two?
 methods?were?water?and?oil?gilding.??Toward?the?end?of?the?C18TH,?this?profession?was?being?
 executed?by?a?large?group?of?semi?skilled?labor.??
 Carving?Gilding? Because?these?two?functions?were?so?tightly?related?to?each?other,?they?slowly?began?to?be?
 combined?into?one?profession.??
 Chair?Carving? These?craftsmen?carved?everything?except?frames.??This?included?chairs,?bed?column,?and?other?
 decorative?elements.??
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 ?furnishes?chests?of?drawers,?desks,?scrutoires,?bureaus,?chairs,?tables,?book?cases,?sofas,?and?
 bedsteads.??Indeed,?the?business?of?a?Cabinet?maker?and?that?of?an?Upholsterer?are?now?generally?
 united.?
 ?
 (No?Author?Given),?The?Book?of?Trades,?A.?K.?Newman?&?Co.,?London,?1829,?p.?25?
 108?See?P.?Kirkham,?The?London?Furniture?Trade:??1700?1870,?p.?29.?
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?182?
 ?
 Table?3?2?
 English?Furniture?Worker?Descriptions?
 Name? Description/Comments?
 Frame?Carving? Worked?mainly?in?softwoods?such?as?lime,?pear,?or?beech.??These?were?considered?the?most?
 artistic?and?skilled?of?all?furniture?makers.?
 Turning? It?is?interesting?to?note?that?the?Neo?Classical?style?returned?to?favor?the?work?of?the?turner.??
 Instead?of?heavily?carved?decorations,?furniture?makers?were?looking?for?simple?columns.??The?
 uses?of?increased?mechanization?lead?to?the?making?of?turned?handles,?and?other?items?(chair?
 legs,?bed?pillars,?etc)?which?could?be?made?less?expensively?than?before.??
 ?
 All?of?these?changes?go?along?with?the?increases?in?the?sizes?of?the?workshops.??At?the?
 beginning?of?the?C18th?shops?comprising?one?wareroom?and?one?workshop?with?just?a?
 handful?of?workers?were?common,?by?the?mid?C18th?these?premises?had?grown?and?the?
 average?number?of?employees?increased?to?40?50.?By?the?early?19th?Century?firms?were?
 often?employed?twice?that?number?and?increasingly?included?semi?skilled?or?unskilled?
 workers.109??The?trade?societies?were?a?natural?corollary?to?these?changes.??
 ?
 In?summary,?there?are?several?key?differences?between?England?and?France?that?can?be?
 noted?here.???
 ?
 ? In?France?guilds?were?well?established?while?in?England?the?equivalent?organisations?
 were?struggling?to?accommodate?issues?emerging?around?training,?pricing,?wages?
 and?benefits?during?this?period.??While?guild?members?in?France?received?much?
 better?protection?and?benefits,?those?outside?of?the?guild?system?were?not?well?
 served?and?probably?worse?off?in?many?cases?than?craftsman?in?England.??
 ? While?in?France,?the?guilds?were?part?of?the?regal?system;?it?was?quite?different?in?
 England.??In?England,?the?legal?system?supported?workshop?owners?(as?clearly?
 demonstrated?by?the?laws?passed?to?frustrate?the?trade?societies???as?witnessed?by?
 the?strike?of?1761).??While?guilds?in?France?were?part?of??the?system?,?in?England?they?
 the?trade?associations?represented?a?political?struggle?against??the?system?.?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 109?P.?Kirkham,?The?London?Furniture?Trade:??1700?1870,?p.?72.?
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?183?
 ?
 Figure?4?5:?Inside?cover?of?T.?Chippendales?Third?
 Edition?of?the?Gentleman's?Director?(Scanned?
 from?book).?
 ?
 ? It?is?clear?that?England?was?in?the?process?of?moving?from?a?craftsman?dominated?
 industry?to?more?industrial?modes?of?manufacture.??There?were?continuous?efforts?
 by?managers?to?hire?cheap?unskilled?and?semi?skilled?labour?while?the?makers?were?
 fighting?to?retain?their?status?as?skilled?craftsmen.??The?French?approach?to?getting?
 cutting?costs?was?to?use?the?protected?craftsmen?who?operated?outside?of?the?guild?
 system.????
 ? Both?England?and?France?were?moving?towards?a?society?of?consumption?and?the?
 modern?phenomenon?of??shopping?.??
 ? Consistent?with?the?move?from?a?guild?
 system?to?a?manufacturing?system,?
 the?English?training?programs?were?
 starting?to?change?from?an?apprentice?
 system?to?a?system?dependent?on?
 semi?skilled?labour.???
 ?
 F. Chippendale?s?Business?
 ?
 Thomas?Chippendale?s?business?was?a?London?
 furniture?making?company?that?first?made?its?
 name?by?offering?fashionable?furniture?in?the?
 Rococo?style.??As?described?above,?in?a?very?
 astute?marketing?move,?Chippendale?
 published?a?book?of?designs?called?The?
 Gentleman?and?the?Cabinet?Maker?s?Director,?
 which?would?set?the?standard?for?all?of?the?
 design?books?to?follow.?
 ?
 In?many?ways,?the?Chippendale?workshop?was?
 exceptional.??First?of?all,?he?was?a?
 cabinetmaker,?who?ran?a?workshop?and?who?also?possessed?a?remarkable?gift?for?design.??
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?184?
 ?
 While?it?would?be?many?years?before?furniture?making?companies?would?routinely?hire?
 specialist?designers,?at?this?moment?in?time?many?companies?merely?copied?designs?or?
 followed?instructions?from?architects.??John?Linnell?was?another?cabinetmaker?that?was?an?
 accomplished?designer?and?Ince?and?Mayhew?were?also?interesting;?though?both?had?
 trained?as?cabinetmakers,?
 Ince?took?on?the?role?of?
 designer?while?Mayhew?
 retained?responsibility?for?
 the?cabinetmaking.??
 ?
 Chippendale?s?workshop?
 (See?Figure?4?6)?shows?just?
 how?integrated?his?
 production?was.110??We?
 can?see?he?employed?
 carvers,?gilders,?
 upholsters,?glass?
 cutters/grinders,?metal?
 workers?polishers?as?well?
 as?chair?makers?and?
 cabinetmakers.??He?was?
 also?known?to?have?hired?
 local?workers?when?
 needed.??At?Harewood?
 House?for?example?he?was?
 known?to?have?hired?a?
 local?man?who?worked?for?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 110?C.?Edwards,?Eighteenth?Century?Furniture,?pp.?18?19.?
 ?
 Figure?4?6:??Schematic?of?Chippendales??St.?Martin?Lane?(London)?
 workshop,?showing?the?different?work?areas?used?by?Chippendale.???
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?185?
 ?
 Chippendale?at?Harewood111?for?nearly?a?year?as?pieces?of?furniture?were?delivered,?making?
 small?repairs?and?in?one?case?applying?brick?dust?to?the?finish,?to?colour?and?fill?the?grain?
 and?polish?the?surface.??It?is?assumed?that?he?also?performed?some?assembly?work?and?
 helped?to?set?up?the?furniture.112???
 ?
 We?do?not?know?precisely?how?many?craftsmen?Chippendale?employed,?however?we?do?
 know?that?on?one?occasion?when?fire?broke?out?that?22?craftsmen?lost?their?tools???as?he?
 advertised?the?affair?in?the?London?papers?to?try?get?people?to?contribute?to?the?effort?to?
 replace?them113?
 ?
 Given?the?different?trades?his?
 workshop?housed,?it?would?not?be?
 unreasonable?to?assume?that?the?
 number?Chippendale?employed?was?
 in?the?range?of?30???40.?Also,?we?know?
 that?he?had?very?few?apprentices,?
 which?again?suggests?a?relatively?
 small?workforce.114?Thus,?the?
 Chippendale?workshop?was?probably?
 a?small?to?medium?size?shop?relative?
 to?other?furniture?shops?in?terms?of?
 the?number?of?employees???and?
 certainly?much?smaller?than?the?operation?at?Seddon?s115.????
 ?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 111?See?A.?Mullins,?Local?Furniture?Makers?at?Harewood?House?as?Representatives?of?Provincial?Craftsmen,?
 Journal?of?the?Furniture?History?Society,?Vol?1,?1965,?pp.?33?37.??While?it?is?just?speculation,?it?could?be?the?case?
 that?local?workmen?produced?the?Harewood?Dressing?Table?that?is?discussed?in?some?detail?in?Chapter?V.?
 112?Internal?document?at?Harewood?House?files,?draft?presentation???No?date?or?author?was?given.??
 113?C.?Gilbert,?The?Life?and?Works?of?Thomas?Chippendale,?p.?24.?
 114?P.?Kirkham,?The?London?Furniture?Trade:??1700?1870,?p.?49.?
 115?C.?Gilbert?describes?Seddon?as?having?reached??tycoon?proportions??because?of?the?large?size?of?his?
 workshop.??See?C.?Gilbert,?The?Life?and?Works?of?Thomas?Chippendale,?p.?24.?
 ?
 Figure?4?7:?Chippendale?business?card?showing?his?
 partnership?with?Rannie.?
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?186?
 ?
 Despite?Chippendale?s?celebrity,?he?did?not?end?up?wealthy.??In?fact,?on?several?occasions?
 during?his?career?he?required?financial?help?and?called?upon?the?support?of?three?investors?
 at?different?times?during?his?business?life???and?clearly?after?the?workshop?fire?of?1755,?
 Chippendale?did?not?have?the?funds?to?replace?the?tools?lost?by?22?of?his?employees.???This?
 qualified?level?of?financial?success?was?probably?typical?of?furniture?making?in?England?and?
 contrasts?sharply?with?the?fortunes?of?Chippendale?s?French?counterparts.???
 ?
 It?is?interesting?to?note?that?Chippendale?together?with?other?high?end?cabinetmakers?like?
 Ince?and?Mayhew,?imported?furniture?from?France????incidentally?both?of?these?companies?
 were?fined?at?one?time?or?another?for?importing?furniture?without?paying?the?proper?import?
 duties.??In?such?cases,?this?imported?furniture?would?have?been?finished?in?England.??This?
 furniture?often?took?the?form?of?unfinished?chairs.??This?was?certainly?so?in?the?case?of?
 Chippendale???which?would?suggest?that?the?prices?of?such?chairs?were?less?in?France?than?in?
 England,?which?perhaps?suggests?that?they?were?purchasing?from?non?guild?makers.???
 ?
 ?
 G. Moving?Toward?Mechanization?
 ?
 The?late?C18th?represented?changes?in?many?different?areas.??Booths?and?street?pedlars?
 were?making?way?for?store?fronts?with?glass?fronts;?small?furniture?making?businesses?were?
 evolving?into?larger?operations?producing?a?plethora?of?different?types?of?furniture;?design?
 was?evolving?from?Rococo?to?Neo?Classical?etc.??This?was?evident?particularly?in?the?growing?
 industrialization?of?work?and?of?the?use?of?machinery?to?perform?tasks?previously?done?by?
 hand???a?phenomenon?that?will?be?examined?more?closely?in?the?following?chapter.?While?
 some??machines??had?long?been?employed?in?furniture?making?(pole?lathes?and?water?and?
 wind?powered?saws?for?example116)?the?C18th?saw?a?steady?increase?in?mechanisation?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 116?Referring?to?correspondence?with?the?U.K.?The?Tools?and?Trades?History?Society?(TATHS)?and?to?P.?George,?
 Les?Bois?de?Placage?it?le?D?bit?M?canique?de?Bois,?La?Conservation?du?Bois?dans?le?Patrimoine?Culture,?
 Journ?es?D'?tudes?de?la?S.F.I.I.C,?(conference),?Besancon?Vesoul,?1990,?pp.?15?26?both?water?and?wind?
 powered?saw?mills?had?been?around?since?the?C17th.??There?were?multiple?blade?saws?that?theoretically?could?
 cut?multiple?sheets?of?veneer?at?one?time;?they?appear?to?have?only?been?used?to?cut?timbers.?
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?187?
 ?
 although?the?wholesale?industrialisation?of?the?furniture?would?have?to?wait?until?the?C19th.?
 C.?Edwards?for?example,?explains?that?mechanised?saws,?and?planning?machines?had?been?
 developed?as?early?as?1776?(invented?by?Leonard?Hatton)?but?it?is?hard?to?judge?how?rapidly?
 such?inventions?were?taken?up?by?the?trade.?117??Take?the?cutting?of?veneers?for?example,?
 where?both?Roubo?and?Diderot?still?shows?veneers?being?cut?by?hand?in?France?circa?
 1765.118?The?first?date?established?by?this?author?for?a?saw?set?in?a?moveable?frame?to?cut?
 veneers?operative?in?France?was?1799?(see?Figure?4?8).??In?England?it?was?Brunel?in?1805?
 who?first?developed?a?mechanical?saw?to?cut?veneers?in?1805.119??While?it?is?theoretically?
 possible?that?mechanized?saws?were?employed?to?cut?veneers?before?that?date,?there?is?
 presently?no?evidence?to?substantiate?this.??Similarly,?for?other?mechanical?processes,?it?was?
 1791?and?1793?respectively?that?a?mechanized?approach?to?cutting?joints?was?first?patented?
 but?it?was?not?
 introduced?
 commercially?until?the?
 mid?C19th.??It?was?also?
 1808?before?the?first?
 band?saw?was?invented?
 but?even?this?required?
 the?development?of?a?
 reliable?blade?before?it?
 became?a?useful?
 commercial?tool.120???
 So?it?seems?that?
 throughout?this?period,?
 the?use?of?machinery?
 to?help?make?furniture?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 117?C.?Edwards,?Tools?and?Techniques:??1600?1840,?Articles?by?BAFRA???on?line?article?located?at?
 http://www.bafra.org.uk/html_pages/articles_toolsandtechniques.html,?last?accessed?07?2010.?
 118?See?A.?Roubo,?l?Art?Du?Menuisier?and?see?the?pictures?on?the?following?pages.?
 119?C.?Edwards,?Tools?and?Techniques:??1600?1840.?
 120?C.?Edwards,?Tools?and?Techniques:??1600?1840.?
 ?
 Figure?4?8:?Veneer?saw?mounted?on?a?sliding?frame;?thought?to?have?been?
 designed?in?1799?in?France.??
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?188?
 ?
 faster?and?more?efficiently?was?barely?developed.??According?to?P.?Kirkham,?the?only?real?
 advances?that?were?made?in?the?furniture?trade?of?the?C18th?was?in?regard?to?the?
 preparation?of?the?timber;?improvements?in?cutting?the?wood?into?planks?and?in?planning?
 and?preparing?the?wood?for?use?in?furniture.??All?of?this?took?place?at?the?mills?where?the?
 wood?was?prepared.121??As?shown?in?the?images?that?follow?taken?from?books?published?
 between?1750?and?1770,?workshops?were?almost?exclusively?dependent?upon?hand?skills?
 (See?Figure?4?9?and?4?10).??
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 121?P.?Kirkham,?The?London?Furniture?Trade:??1700?1870,?pp.?109?110.?
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?189?
 ?
 ?
 ?
 ?
 ?
 ? ?
 Figure?4?9:?In?the?upper?drawing,?two?sawyers?cutting?veneers?from?a?log?using?a?large?clamp?to?
 hold?the?log,?and?a?double?handled?saw?to?cut?it.??On?the?lower?left?is?someone?using?a?clamp?to?
 hold?the?veneer?to?allow?for?the?use?of?a?skill?saw?to?cut?marquetry?patterns,?on?the?lower?right?is?
 someone?using?what?is?described?as?a?molding?plane.???
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?190?
 ?
 ?
 F. Concluding?Remarks?
 ?
 As?discussed?in?this?chapter,?furniture?production?was?to?undergo?a?radical?change?in?the?
 late?C18th.??This?is?exemplified?by?both?the?German?furniture?maker?Roentgen?and?the?
 French?Marchand?Mercier?Dominique?Daguerre,?who?sold?furniture?to?fashionable?
 customers?in?both?England?and?France.??In?England,?the?emerging?shops?and?warehouses?
 were?frequently?being?opened?up?by?furniture?makers?themselves?while?France?saw?the?
 emergence?of?the?Marchand?Merciers.??In?both?cases,?furniture?played?its?part?in?the?
 increasingly?sophisticated?wares?on?offer?to?an?increasingly?affluent?clientele.?Shopping?
 became?a?democratic?phenomenon?where?goods?were?displayed?and?the?purchase?of?
 fashionable?goods?became?the?measure?of?new?codes?of?social?behaviour.??Despite?these?
 ?
 Figure?4?10:??French?workshop?as?Illustrated?in?Diderot's?L'?Encyclop?die?note?the?Marquetry?clamp?without?
 the?arm?(left?side?of?picture),?the?hand?sawing?of?timber?or?veneer?(centre),?and?the?number?of?different?
 projects?(wardrobe,?secr?taire,?commode,?etc?
MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:?Chapter?IV???Making?Furniture?? Page?191?
 ?
 changes,?furniture?was?still?largely?made?by?hand?by?increasing?numbers?of?craftsmen?and?
 industrialisation?would?have?to?wait?for?the?new?century.122??
 ?
 Ironically?nothing?indicates?that?either?Chippendale?or?Riesener?(the?subjects?at?the?heart?of?
 this?thesis)?made?use?of?the?newly?emerging?stores?to?sell?their?furniture;?they?relied?upon?a?
 much?more?personal?approach?instead,?meeting?with?clients,?discussing?their?needs?and?
 designing?furniture?to?meet?their?needs123.?However?Chippendale?did?create?one?of?the?
 earliest?catalogues?and?he?clearly?understood?the?importance?of?advertising???arguably?the?
 main?engine?of?the?consumer?society?we?see?emerge?in?the?so?called?age?of?elegance.?
 ?
 ?
 ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 122?S.?Baley,?in?Shops?suggests?that?the?stores?and?the?catalogues?used?to?entice?people?created?demand?for?
 furniture?that?was?not?there?before?this?period.??Thus,?while?the?shops?were?only?designed?to?meet?needs,?
 they?in?fact?created?needs?leading?to?an?upward?spiral?in?sales.??It?could?be?that?this?progression?created?the?
 need?for?people?to?look?for?more?efficient?and?faster?ways?to?make?furniture?resulting?in?the?development?of?
 new?machines?to?use?within?the?shops.??
 123?It?should?be?pointed?out?that,?as?seen?in?Figure?4?6,?there?was?what?was?called?a?counting?room.??This?
 appears?to?be?too?small?to?be?a?display?room?for?furniture?and?is?most?likely?a?small?office?like?that?which?is?
 shown?on?the?cover?for?this?chapter?(A?Cabinet?Maker?s?Office,?painting,?unknown?artist,?ca?1770,?Great?
 Britain.?Picture?was?obtained?from?the?Victoria?&?Albert?collection?from?the?
 websightehttp://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O78662/painting?a?cabinet?makers?office/,?Accessed?on?07/10.)?
 Also,?none?of?the?descriptions?put?forth?by?any?of?the?authors?suggested?that?Chippendale?had?a?display?room?
 (See?for?example:?Gilbert,?C.,?The?Life?and?Works?of?Thomas?Chippendale,?Studio?Vista/Christies,?London,?
 1978.)?As?far?as?Riesener?is?concerned,?there?was?no?mention?of?Riesener?having?a?show?room,?plus?his?
 workshop?was?not?in?a?location?to?support?this.??As?with?Chippendale,?he?frequently?travelled?to?the?Royal?
 families?residences?to?discuss?furniture?needs?(see?Verlet,?P.?(Translated?from?German?by?K.?Riall),?M?bel?von?J.?
 H.?Riesener,?Franz?Schneekluth?Verlag,?Darmstadt,?Germany,?1954.)?