? ? Chapter?III? How?did?the?Neo?Classical?Style? Develop?in?England?and?France?? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE?IN?ENGLAND?AND?FRANCE? DURING?THE?AGE?OF?ELEGANCE? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?119? On?the?cover:?? ? ? From?Robert?Woods?drawings?in?the?book,?Ruins?of?Palmyra,?1753?(first?edition)? Picture?taken?from?website:??http://www.manhattanrarebooks?art.com/wood.htm,? Accessed?05/2010.? ? ? From?Robert?Woods?drawings?in?the?book,?Ruins?of?Palmyra,?1753?(first?edition)? Picture?taken?from?website:??http://www.manhattanrarebooks?art.com/wood.htm,? Accessed?05/2010.? ? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?120? A. Introduction? This?chapter?traces?the?source?of?the?Neo?Classical?revival.??Many?authors?relate?the?start?of? the?Neo?Classical?revival?to?the?discovery?of?two?important?ruins?in?Italy???that?of?Pompeii? (1748)?and?Herculaneum?(1738).??Though?these?two?events?did?increase?the?interest?in?the? ancient?civilizations?and?for?the?first?time?provided?examples?of?the?household?items?of? ancient?Rome,?the?interest?in?the?ancient?design?ideas?began?well?before?the?C18th.??This? chapter?will?outline?how?the?revival?of?classical?ideals?first?impacted?upon?architecture?and? interiors,?then?furniture?design.?However,?before?beginning?this?account,?it?may?be?useful?to? identify?a?number?of?assumptions?that?shaped?the?research.??? ? ? The?first?assumption?was?that?furniture?designs?followed?interior?designs,?which?in? turn?followed?exterior?and?structural?architectural?designs.?It?was?for?this?reason? that?the?investigation?into?where?the?English?and?the?French?got?their?Neo?Classical? furniture?designs?began?with?architecture.???While?there?are?correlations?between? the?three,?it?will?be?demonstrated?that?this?was?not?as?strong?a?relationship?prior?to? the?Neo?Classical?period?as?assumed.??This?period?marked?the?moment?when?the? correlation?between?architecture?and?furniture?design?became?pronounced.??? ? ? The?second?assumption?was?that?there?was?some?kind?of?definitive?demarcation? between?the?development?of?the?Neo?Classical?style?and?prior?styles.??This?line?of? demarcation?will?be?shown?to?be?blurred,?as?it?became?clear?that?there?was?a?great? deal?of?overlap?between?the?Neo?Classical?style?and?the?Rococo???the?previously? dominant?style.??However,?there?were?marked?similarities?between?the?design?which? emerged?in?the?Neo?Classical?era?and?classical?architectural?designs?of?earlier? revivals,?demonstrating?that?most?design?impulses?tend?to?be?cyclical?and?that?the? ?Neo?Classical?Revival??of?the?C18th?was?the?latest?of?many?earlier?revivals???if? (arguably)?more?extensive?and?long?lived?than?any?before?or?since.? ?? ? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?121? B. The?Neo?Classical?Revival?in?England?and?France? ? The?emergence?of?the??Neo?Classical??style?in?England?and?France?during?the?mid?to?late? C18th?was?complicated???involving?a?play?of?influence?between?a?number?of?different? countries,?people?and?events?and?around?a?number?of?(seemingly)?unlikely?areas?such?as? politics?and?philosophy.?As?with?all?fashions,?it?seems?clear?that?this?is?one?example?where? the?changes?in?design?did?not?operate?in?a?vacuum?(does?it?ever?)?but?seems?to?have?been? an?intimate?part?of?the?wider?social?and?cultural?changes?of?the?time.??To?this?end,?it?seems? that?the?best?way?to?understand?the?resurgence?of?Neo?Classical?influence?in?these?two? countries?is?to?set?the?stage?by?describing?some?indicative?cultural?events.?? ?? The?Neo?Classical?revival?chimed?with?the?period?that?is?frequently?called?the??Age?of? Enlightenment??or?the??Age?of?Reason.???This?was?a?period?of?intensive?changes.?? Philosophers?such?as?John?Locke?(English,?1632?1704),?David?Hume?(English,?1711?1776)? and?Jean?Jacques?Rousseau,?(French,?1712?1778)1?for?example,?all?developed?new?ideas? about?how?people?should?live.??They?asked?questions?about?all?aspects?of?life?and?they? sought?the??truth??behind?ideas?through?the?application?of?reason.??It?was?a?period?in?which? accepted?authorities?were?questioned???and?in?France?this?meant?the?authority?of?the? Crown?in?particular?came?under?challenge.?2??? 1?Even?Marie?Antoinette?was?to?show?interest?in?the?ideas?of?Rousseau?and?to?show?some?support?for?him?by? visiting?his?tomb?and?admiring?its?simplicity.??It?is?also?believed?that?she?was?being?influenced?by?this?writings.? One?example?of?how?the?idea?of?simplicity?was?entering?into?Marie?Antoinette?s?taste?was?in?clothing.??This? was?shown?in?her?giving?permission?for?men?to?dress?in?simple?Frockcoats?in?her?presence,?then?in?how?she? started?preferring?simpler?materials?such?as?linens?and?cottons?over?silks,?and?her?lighter?use?of?make?up.?(A.? Fraser,?Marie?Antoinette:?The?Journey,?Weidenfeld?&?Nicolson,?London,?2001,?pp.?209,?266).??As?mentioned? earlier?a?linen?dress?was?sent?to?England?to?The?Duchess?of?Devonshire?that?started?to?transfer?the?fashion? trend?to?that?country.?? ? It?should?also?be?pointed?out?that?while?Rousseau?spoke?of?simplicity?in??life??in?general,?which?supported?the? ideas?that?were?coming?out?of?the?Neo?Classical?approach?to?art,?design?and?architecture,?he?also?wrote?of?the? need?for?things?to?occur?freely?and?without?constraint?which,?one?could?argue,?supported?the?ideas?behind? Rococo?designs.??? 2?This?is?one?point?where?the?political?situation?interacted?with?design.??Rococo?and?all?of?its?excesses?became? associated?with?the?Royalty?and?as?a?result,?Neo?Classical?design?became?associated?with?the?revolt?against?the? excesses.??In?England?Neo?Classical?design?became?associated?with?the?Whigs.??Ironically,?in?the?newly?found? country?of?the?United?States,?the?colonial?version?of?Neo?Classical?(Federal?Style)?became?associated?with?their? independence?from?the?English?monarchy.????? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?122? ? One?area?where?they?searched?for??truth??was?in?art?and?architecture?and?the?Classical?ideal? came?to?represent?a?kind?of?truth.??Hume?for?example,?in?Of?the?Standard?of?Taste,?suggests? that?the?classical?style?offered??proof??that?there?was?an?absolute?standard?of?good?taste.3?? While?other?philosophers?were?less?insistent?in?this?regard,?their?ideas?were?consistent?with? the?adoption?of?classical?ideals.? ? Coincidentally,?with?this?search?for?truth?was?an?increased?interest?in?the?application?of? logic.??Many?Enlightenment?scholars?believed?any?problem?could?be?solved?through?the? careful?application?of?logic.??The?ancient?classical?civilizations?of?Greece?and?Rome?were? strongly?associated?with?such?intellectual?pursuits?and?as?a?result,?in?subjects?ranging?from? art,?to?philosophy,?to?mathematics?and?architecture,?the?literati?of?England?and?France? looked?to?the?ancient?civilizations?for?inspiration.??Neo?Classicism?became?the?artistic? expression?of?these?pursuits.4???? ? Because?the?lead?in?the?development?of?the?Neo?Classical?design?in?furniture?came?primarily? from?architecture,?the?discussion?about?where?the?design?ideas?came?into?furniture?will? begin?here.?As?suggested?above,?many?authors?relate?the?start?of?the?Neo?Classical?revivals? to?the?discoveries?of?Pompeii?(1748)?and?Herculaneum?(1738).??While?these?two?discoveries? were?important,?the?interest?in?the?ancient?civilizations?architectural?designs?began?as?far? back?as?the?Renaissance?and?while?interest?was?sporadic,?prior?to?the?C18th?there?was? always?interest?in?this?subject.???For?example,?the?architectural?studies?of?the?Roman?writer? Marcus?Vitruvius?Pollio?(80?70?BC???after?15?BC)?were?published?in?1486.??The?response?to? De?Architectura?was?so?positive?that?it?was?subsequently?translated?into?Italian?(1521),? French?(1547)?and?English?(1543)?as?well?as?several?other?languages.?It?was?in?this?text?? 3?M.?Bartholomew,?D.?Hall?and?A.?Lentin,?The?Enlightenment,?The?Open?University,?Milton?Keynes,?UK,?1992,?p.? 220.? 4?Although?a?bit?later?than?the?period?defined?as?the?main?focus?of?this?thesis,?Beau?Brummell,?(1778???1840)? established?the?mode?of?men?wearing?understated,?but?fitted,?beautifully?cut?clothes,?adorned?with?an? elaborately?knotted?cravat,?which?became?the?model?or?dress?for?men?even?today.??His?inspiration?for?this? approach?to?dress?was?to?emulate?the?perfect?proportions?exhibited?by?ancient?Greek?and?Roman?statues?of? men.?(I.?Kelly,?Beau?Brummell:?The?Ultimate?Dandy,?Hodder?and?Stoughton,?LTD,?London,?2005.)?? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?123? (known?today?as?The?Ten?Books?on?Architecture)?that?the?classical?orders?(Tuscan,?Doric,? Ionic?and?Corinthian)?were?first?described?and?concepts?of?order,?arrangement,?eurhythmy? and?symmetry?were?first?specified.5???These?formed?the?basis?of?much?of?the?Neo?Classical? architecture?that?was?executed?in?the?late?C18th?by?architects?in?England?and?France.? ? The?involvement?of?the?French?Royal?family?(and?hence?the?Government?of?France)?was? instrumental?in?the?development?of?architectural?design.?Their?interest?(ironically)?started? somewhat?as?the?result?of?their?political?ambitions.??France?first?learnt?something?of? classical?material?culture?as?a?result?of?war?with?Italy?in?the?C15th.???It?was?some?time?later? that?Louis?XIV?was?interested?in?the?arts?as?a?way?to?symbolize?France?s?position?in?the? world.??Louis?XIV?showed?an?equal?interest?in?classical?learning?and?France?became?the?first? country?in?Europe?to?set?up?a?professional?academy?of?architecture??The?Acad?mie?Royale? D'Architecture??(The?Royal?Academy?of?Architecture)?which?was?founded?on?1671?under? Colbert.?Its?first?director?was?the?mathematician?and?engineer?Fran?ois?Blondel?(1618?1686)? and?the?academy?was?to?provide?a?forum?for?architects?to?develop?the?theory?of? architecture?and?ensured?France?s?leadership?in?the?field.? ? In?addition?to?this?Royal?Academy,?Louis?XIV?(with?the?assistance?of?Colbert?and?Le?Brun)? founded?a?school?in?Italy?in?1666?to?promote?the?study?of?art?and?architecture?of?the? classical?world.??French?artists?awarded?the?Prix?de?Rome?became?known?as?Pensionnaires? de?l'Acad?mie?(Academy?Pensioners)?and?their?studies?helped?inspire?and?sustain?classical? interest?in?France?and?subsequently?inform?the?C18th?Revival.?? ? 5?These?last?two???eurhythmy?and?symmetry?are?very?similar?in?that?they?reflect?a?comparison?between? different?aspects?of?a?design.??While?symmetry?concerns?the?comparison?of?like?measures?(height?to?height,? length?to?length,?etc.)?eurhythmy?involves?the?comparisons?of?different?measures?(height?to?length,?length? to?depth,?etc.).??Thus,?both?look?at?different?aspects?of?the?concept?of?balance.?See?R.?Padovan,?Proportion:? Science,?Philosophy,?Architecture,?Spon?Press,?London,?1999,?p.?159.??Here?Padovan?is?discussing?an? interpretation?of?Vitruvius?s?de?Architecture?by?Van?der?Laan.)? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?124? The?French?were?also?active?in?publishing? books?on?classic?architecture.??The?first? example?was?Vitruvius?s?Ten?Books?on? Architecture,?first?published?in?1547?by? Jean?Martin.?Other?books?followed? including?translations?of?Alberti?and?Serlio? (Alberti?s?De?re?aedificatoria???On?the?Art? of?Building?in?1443?1452?and?Serlio?s? Regole?generali?d'architettura????The? General?Rules?of?Architecture"?in?1537)? both?again?translated?by?Jean?Martin.? These?were?followed?by?a?number?of?other? notable?publications,?including???J.?A.?du?Cereau?s? three?Livres?d?Architecture?(1559?72),?and?Plus? excellent?B?timents?in?1576?1579,?Trat??de?Toute? by?Cordemoy?in?1706?and?Abb??Laugier?s?Essai? sur?l?architecture?(1753).6??In?addition,?French? architects?frequently?wrote?papers?on?theoretical? subjects?relating?to?architecture,?something?that? their?English?counterparts?did?not?take?up?until? much?later?in?the?C18th.?? ? 6?B.?Fletcher,?(Edited?by?J.?Musgrove),?A?History?of?Architecture,?19th?Edition,?Butterworths,?London,?1987,?pp.? 837?840.? Figure?3?2:??Portrait?De?Jacques?Germain? Soufflot,?French?Neo?Classical?Architect?(1713? 1780)?Painted?by?Jean?Pierre?Mazies.? Figure?3?1:??The?Marquis?de?Marigny?Painted?by? Alexander?Roslin?in?1764.?(Currently?at?the?Ch?teau? de?Versailles)?In?this?portrait,?the?table?is?in?the? Neo?Classical?style?while?the?Chair?is?in?the?Rococo? style? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?125? Figure?3?3:??The?Pantheon?in?Paris?is?one?of? Soufflot?s?most?widely?recognized?buildings.? In?France,?a?key?moment?in?the?development?of?the?Neo?Classical?Revival?emerged?in?1749? when?Madame?de?Pompadour?arranged?for?her?19?year?old?brother?Abel?Fran?ois?Poisson? de?Vandi?res??(1727???1781,?see?Figure?3?1)?to?accompany?a?group?of?architects?and?artists? on?a?trip?to?Italy.7??Writing?to?the?Duc?de?Nivernais,?(French?Ambassador?to?Rome),?she? informed?him:?? ? "My?brother?is?taking?with?him?a?certain?Soufflot?of?Lyons,?a?very?gifted?architect,?Cochin?whom?you? know,?and?I?think?the?Abb??Leblanc.?8???? ? While?this?suggests?that?Madame?de?Pompadour?took?an?interest?in?her?brother?s?activities,? it?may?not?necessarily?equate?with?any?real?interest?in?the?purpose?of?the?trip.???However,? Posner?argues?that?she?did?indeed?take?a?great?deal?of?interest?in?the?trip.9??What?is? interesting?here?is?that?all?three?of?the?architects?in?the?group?were?critical?of?the?prevailing? style?of?Rococo.?10??This?was?especially?true?of? Soufflot?(a?German)?who?had?visited?Rome? earlier?and?was?a?formidable?advocate?of?the? Neo?Classical.??While?Soufflot?s?opposition?to? the?Rococo?was?already?well?known,?the? other?two?architects?similarly?began?voicing? their?opposition?after?the?trip???some?years? before?Robert?Adam?was?to?arrive?Rome.??? ? Two?things?were?to?come?out?of?this?trip.?? 7?Charles?Nicolas?Cochin?(1715??1790),?Jacques?Germain?Soufflot?(1713??1780)?and?Jean?Bernard,?Abb??Le? Blanc?(1707???1781).? 8?D.?Posner,?Mme.?de?Pompadour?as?a?Patron?of?the?Visual?Arts,?The?Art?Bulletin,?Vol.?72,?No.?1,?1990,?p.?79.? 9?D.?Posner,?Mme.?de?Pompadour?as?a?Patron?of?the?Visual?Arts,?p.?80.? 10?Both?D.?Posner?and?S.?Eriksen?suggest?that?this?trip?was?a?way?to?train?Madame?de?Pompadour?s?brother?to? take?over?as?the?future?Marquis?de?Marigny?and?Directeur?des?Batiments.??The?trip?served?this?purpose?very? well?as?he?did?take?over?from?1751?to?1753?(His?full?list?of?titles?were?to?become?Directeur?et?Ordonnateur?des? Bastiments,?des?Jardins,?Arts,?Academies?et?Manufactures?Royales.).??(See:??D.?Posner,?Mme.?de?Pompadour?as? a?Patron?of?the?Visual?Arts,?and?S.?Eriksen,?(Translated?by?P.?Thorton),?Early?Neo?Classicism?in?France:??The? Creation?of?the?Louis?Seize?Style?in?Architectureal?Decoration,?Furniture?and?Ormalu,?Gold?and?Silver?and?Sevres? Porcelain?in?the?Mid?Eighteenth?Century,?Faber,?London,?1974.)? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?126? First?of?all?it?resulted?in?several?major?publications?by?Cochin.11??Secondly?it?inspired? Madame?de?Pompadour?s?brother?(later?to?become?the?Marquis?de?Marigny)?to?take?an? interest?in?art?and?architecture.??As?the?Marquis?de?Marigny,?he?helped?promote?Le?Go?t? Grec?by?purchasing?a?number?of?pieces?of?furniture?in?the?Greek?style.12??He?also?undertook? several?trips?to?England?to?purchase?furniture?in?the?Neo?Classical?style.13??? ? Soufflot?(for?his?part)?was?to?design?the?Pantheon,?one?of?the?most?important?Neo?Classical? buildings?in?Paris,?built?in?1771?(See?Figure?3?3). 14 Jean?Bernard,?(Abb??Le?Blanc?1707?1781)? on?the?other?hand,?was?responsible?for?two?volumes?of?letters?called?Lettres?d'un?Fran?ois? (1745)?which?chronicled?his?travels?in?Holland?and?England?which?became?very?popular.?In? his?letters,?Le?Blanc?spoke?favorably?of?English?life?and?art?and?it?possible?that?Le?Blanc?s? conversations?with?Abel?Fran?ois?Poisson?(Marquis?de?Marigny)?helped?stimulate?the? interest?in?English?furniture?that?Poisson?developed?later?in?his?career. ? The?first?French?school?of?architecture,?the??cole?des?Arts?was?founded?in?1743.?? Independent?of?the?Academy?(and?hence?the?government),?it?was?soon?to?attract?students? from?across?Europe.?Its?founder?Blondel?was?a?very?strong?proponent?of?the?Neo?Classical? style?and?interestingly?enough,?among?Blondel?s?students?was?William?Chambers?of?England?? (see?Figure?3?4),?a?significant?figure?who?was?to?play?a?defining?role?later?in?the? development?of?England?s?Neo?Classical?revival.?15??? 11?Some?of?these?books?include:??A?book?called?Supplication?aux?Orf?vres,?some?articles;?Observations?sur?le? Antiquites?de?la?Ville?d?Herculanum?avac?Quelques?Reflextions?sur?la?Sculpture?des?Anciens?in?the?issues?of? Mercure?de?France???in?this?Cochin?also?wrote?a?manifesto?for?the?coming?Neo?Classical?style?and?his?book? Supplication?aux?Orf?vre.? 12?S.?Eriksen,?Marigny?and?Le?Go?t?Grec,?The?Burlington?Magazine,?Vol.?104,?No?708,?1962,?pp.?96?101.? 13?This?will?be?discussed?later?in?more?detail?(p.?143),?see?A.?Gordon?and?M.?D?chery,?The?Marquis?de?Marigny?s? Purchases?of?English?Furniture?and?Objects,?The?Furniture?History?Journal,?Vol?25,?1989,?pp.?86??108.? 14?It?was?the?architect?Laugier?s?ideas?that?Jacques?Germain?Soufflot?(1713?1780)?used?as?inspiration?to?design? the?Parisian?church?the?Pantheon?in?1757.??Soufflot?is?also?believed?to?have?borrowed?the?dome?of?St?Paul?s? Cathedral?in?London?(designed?by?Sir?Christopher?Wren?in?1708)?but?with?columns?all?around?the?dome.? Laugier?said?that?this?was?the?first?expression?of??the?perfect??architecture.?It?is?interesting?to?note?that?the? Pantheon?was?then?the?inspiration?for?some?of?the?early?Neo?Classical?expressions?of?architecture?in?the? United?States.?? B.?Fletcher,?(Ed.?John?Musgrove),?A?History?of?Architecture,?19th?Edition,?p.?147.? 15?Blondel?not?only?offered?this?school?to?the?general?public,?but?he?established?through?this?effort?an?entirely? new?approach?to?educating?architects.??Prior?to?the?establishment?of?this?school,?architecture?was?taught?like? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?127? ? Arguably,?England?had?never?shown?the? sustained?level?of?interest?in?the?classical? before?the?C18th?that?can?be?seen?in?France? ??with?some?notable?exceptions.??For? example,?Henry?VIII?(1491??1547)?brought? Italian,?French?and?Flemish?craftsmen?to? England?to?work?on?Royal?Palaces?in?the? C15th.16?Yet,?despite?Henry?VIII?recognizing? the?importance?of?the?arts?(enough?to? search?for?artists?and?architects?outside?of? England)?he?did?little?else.??Burlington?was? to?be?the?figure?to?prove?most?influential?in? initiating?sustained?interest?in?the?classical,? particularly?through?patronage?of?his? prot?g??William?Kent.?However,?in?the?time? we?are?investigating?there?was?little?interest? shown?by?the?Royal?family?and?no? significant?academic?society?or?organisation?was?to?emerge?until?the?Royal?Society?was? founded?in?1754,?to?be?followed?by?the?founding?of?the?Royal?Academy?of?Arts?in?1768.17???? other?arts,?primarily?through?apprenticeships?and?self?learning.??Blondel?set?up?a?series?of?standardized? courses.??Also?in?support?of?his?school,?Blondel?became?a?prolific?writer?of?articles?and?books?on?the?subject.? See:??? ? W.?Sturges,??Jacques?Fran?ois?Blondel"?The?Journal?of?the?Society?of?Architectural?Historians?Vol.?11?No?1,? 1952?pp.?16?19.? ? R.?Middleton,?Jacques?Fran?ois?Blondel?and?the?"Cours?d'Architecture",?The?Journal?of?the?Society?of? Architectural?Historian,?Vol.?18.,?No.?4,1959,??pp.?140?148.? ? F.?Schmidt,?Expose?Ignorance?and?Revive?the?"Bon?Go?t":??Foreign?Architects?and?Jacques?Fran?ois? Blondel's??cole?de?Arts,?The?Journal?of?the?Society?of?Architectural?Historians,?Vol?61,?No?1,?2002?pp.?4?29.? ? J.?Harris?and?M.?Snodin?(ed.),?Sir?William?Chambers:??Architect?to?George?III,?Yale?University?Press,?New? Haven,?CT,?USA?and?London,?1997.? ? J.?Harris,?Sir?William?Chambers?and?His?Parisian?Album,?Architectural?History,?Vol.?6,?1963,?pp.54?90.? 16??B.?Fletcher,?(Edited?by?John?Musgrove),?A?History?of?Architecture,?19th?Edition.? 17?Royal?Society?of?the?Arts,?the?RSA,?was?founded?in?1754?under?a?different?name?by?William?Shipley.??Later,?in? 1761,?The?Society?of?Artists?of?Great?Britain?was?founded?in?London?by?living?artists.??In?1765,?the?Society,?then? comprising?211?members,?obtained?a?Royal?Charter?as?the?Incorporated?Society?of?Artists?of?Great?Britain.??The? Figure?3?4:??Leading?English?architect?in?the?Neo? Classical?style???William?Chambers?who?studied?in? Paris?under?Blondel.?Painted?in?1764?by?Frances? Cotes.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?128? ? However?the?English?were?to?learn?the?classical?arts? through?the?Grand?Tour.??The?focus?of?the?Grand?Tour? was?the?art,?architecture?and?culture?of?classical? Rome?and?Greece.???Many?of?the?sons?of?the?English? nobility?came?back?inspired?by?their?experience?and? anxious?to?convert?the?design?of?their?own?estates?to? the?classical?ideal.?Francis?Dashwood?for?example? (1708??1781))?was?inspired?enough?to commission? the?architect?Nicholas?Revett?(1720?1804)?to? undertake?a?tour?of?Greece?and?bring?back?plans?for? the?building?of?West?Wycombe?in?the?Neo?Greek? style.?(As?we?shall?see?later???see?p.?213,?many?of?the? library?tables?build?for?these?English?aristocrats?had? drawing?tables? and?large?drawers? in?order?to?keep?the?architectural?drawings?for?these? new?commissions.)? ? Another?indicator?of?the?depth?of?involvement?by?English? architects?is?the?number?of?books?published.???Prior?to? the?late?C18th,?France?(as?noted?above)?had?published? numerous?texts?on?the?subject?of?classical?architecture.? The?English?tended?to?rely?on?either?French?or?Italian? texts?(For?example?it?wasn?t?until?1720?that?Nicholas? Dubois?translated?The?Architecture?of?A.?Palladio,?in?Four? Royal?Academy?was?formed?in?part?to?rival?the?Society?of?Artists?after?dispute?between?two?leading?architects,? Sir?William?Chambers?and?James?Paine.?Paine?won,?but?Chambers?broke?off?to?help?create?a?new?organization??? the?Royal?Academy,?in?1769.?(Source?from?the?Biography?of?William?Chambers,?from?the?Oxford?Reference? database:?web?site:?http://www.oxforddnb.com/articles/5/5083?article.html?back?=,?Accessed?on?09? February?2009.)? Figure?3?6:?Portrait?Miniature?of?James? Stuart,?c.1778???leading?English? architect.?Attributed?to?Philip?Jean.? Watercolour?on?ivory.?? Figure?3?5:??Front?page?of?I?Quattro?Libri? dell'Architettura?or?The?Four?Books?of? Architecture.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?129? Books?to?English.??About?the?same?time,?Lord?Burlington?worked?with?William?Kent?(1685?? 1748)?to?publish?The?Designs?of?Inigo?Jones?(1727)?which?included?many?of?Palladio?s? designs.)???Thus,?England?relied?heavily?on?the?publications?of?Italian?and?French?books?on? the?topic?of?ancient?architecture?and?design.??However,?in?the?late?C18th?several?influential? English?Neo?Classical?architects?started?publishing?their?own?books?upon?their?return?from? their?Grand?Tour,?these?included:?Woods??Palmyra?(1753);?Sir?William?Chamber?s?Treatise? on?Civil?Architecture?(1759),?Stuart?and?Revett?s?Antiquities?of?Athens?(1762);?and?Robert? Adam?s?Ruins?of?the?Palace?of?the?Emperor?Diocletian?at?Spalatro?in?Dalmatia?(1764).18???? This?late?start?in?publishing?architectural?subjects?was?the?lack?of?support?by?the?Royal? families.??To?quote?Curl:?? ? ??.direct?and?indirect?influence?of?the?monarchy?on? architectural?development?varied?greatly?during?the?Tudor,? Stuart?and?Hanoverian?dynasties?..?However,?the? monarchy?ceased?to?be?the?pace?setter?in?architecture?after? the?accession?of?George?I?(1714?1727)?although?George?IV? (1820?1830)?was?an?active?patron?of?building.??19? ? Instead?it?fell?on?the?architects?themselves?and? the?landed?aristocracy?(many?of?the?landed? aristocrats?were???or?at?least?thought?of? themselves?as???amateur?architects?and? archaeologists.)?The?growth?in?England?s?wealth? and?power?in?the?world?ensured?that?this?group? were?wealthy?enough?by?the?late?C18th?to? finance?wealthy?new?housing?complete?with? luxury?furnishings?to?complete?their?opulent? 18?Like?Chippendale?s?books?these?served?the?architects?in?multiple?ways:??They?were?records?of?their?journeys? and?their?learning,?they?voiced?and?supported?their?points?of?view?to?other?architects?and?to?potential? customers,?they?advertised?their?services?to?potential?customers,?and?made?a?little?money?through?their?sale.?? Like?Chippendale,?the?recipients?of?these?books?were?a?combination?of?aristocrats,?artisans?and?academicians.?? 19?J.?Curl,?Classical?Architecture,?B.?T.?Batsford,?LTD.,?London,?1992,?p.?821. Figure?3?7:?Robert?Adam,?one?of?England?s? leading?proponents?of?Neo?Classical? Architecture???Painting?is?attributed?to? George?Willison,?c.?1770?1775.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?130? homes.??Their?interest?in?classical?architecture?and?design,?combined?with?the?efforts?by?an? influential?group?of?Neo?Classical?architects?ensured?that?many?of?these?homes?would?be? built?and?furnished?throughout?in?the?Neo?Classical?style.??? ? Although?the?Grand?Tours?had?figured?in?the?English?social?calendar?since?Elizabethan?times,? there?was?a?marked?increase?during?the?17th?and?18th?Centuries.??Again,?these?were? generally?thought?of?as?educational,?but?in?many?cases?(Lord?Burlington?for?example)?also? served?as?extended?shopping?trips,?supplied?by?a?growing?industry?in?classical?souvenirs.20?? ? It?was?also?through?these?tours?that?the?English?architects?were?able?to?study?classical?ruins? like?Herculaneum?(1738)?and?Pompeii?(1748)?at?first?hand.?Almost?all?of?the?architects?that? were?to?become?famously?associated?with?the?Neo?Classical?movement?undertook?the? Grand?Tour.??James?Stuart?(1713?1788???see?Figure?3?6)?returned?in?1755?to?become?one?of? the?first?of?a?new?wave?to?reintroduce?the?classical?styles?of?architecture?to?England,? together?with?Chambers?(Figure?3?4),?who?returned?in?the?same?year.21?Above?all,?it?was? Robert?Adam?(1728???1792),?who?was?to?successfully?translate?Neo?Classical?ideals?into?the? architectural?fabric?that?has?become?so?identified?with?England?of?the?late?C18th?after?he? returned?from?a?Grand?Tour,?which?lasted?from?1754?until?1758.22?23?As?accomplished?as? Stuart?and?Chambers?were,?neither?were?as?prolific?or?as?talented?as?Adam.?? ? It?should?be?noted?that?while?on?Grand?Tour,?Adam?met?several?of?the?French?artists?and? architects?who?were?strong?proponents?of?Neo?Classical?design.??In?particular?Charles?Louis? 20?J.?Wilton?Ely,?"Classic?Ground":?Britain,?Italy?and?the?Grand?Tour,?Eighteenth?Century?Life,?Vol?28,?Winter,? Oxford,?2004,?pp.?136?165.? 21?J.?Harris,?Early?Neo?Classical?Furniture,?Journal?of?the?Furniture?History?Society,?Vol.2.,?1966?pp.?1???6.? 22?During?this?time?he?studied?under?the?French?architect?and?artist?Charles?Louis?Cl?risseau?and?the?Italian? artist?Giovanni?Battista?Piranesi.??His?tour?of?Italy?and?France?included?very?intense?study?of?the?ruins?of? Diocletian?s?Palace.?From?this?Adam?published?the?Ruins?of?the?Palace?of?the?Emperor?Diocletian?at?Spalatro? (1764).?Adam?was?to?work?very?closely?with?his?French?tutor?through?his?Grand?Tour,?and?when?he?first? returned.??There?is?in?fact?a?strong?argument?that?it?was?Cl?risseau?who?designed?the?Chimney?Piece?for?the? Earl?of?Hopetoun,?which?was?presented?to?the?Earl?as?an?Adam?design?(See?K.?Eustace,?Robert?Adam,?Charles? Louis?Cl?risseau,?Michael?Rysbrack?and?the?Hopetoun?Chimney?piece,?The?Burlington?Magazine,?Vol.?139,?No.? 1136,?1997,?pp.?743?752).? 23?It?was?well?known?that?James?Stuart?had?health?and?business?problems,?which?may?have?contributed?to?him? not?being?able?to?be?as?strong?of?a?promoter?of?his?style?of?Greek?influenced?architectural?design?as?Adam.?? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?131? Cl?risseau?(1721?1820)?who?became?Adam?s?drawing?teacher,?is?thought?by?some?to?have? suggested?Adam?publish?a?book?of?design?upon?his?return.?24?As?Adam?noted:??? ? ?Mr.?Wilton?introduced?me?to?a?most?valuable?and?ingenious?creature?called?Cl?risseau,?who?draws? ruins?in?architecture?to?perfection.??He?stays?in?this?house?with?Mr.?Hugford?the?painter,?to?whom?I? delivered?my?letter?from?Mr.?Hamilton?the?painter?in?London25??? ? It?was?the?French?engraver?Cochin?(described?above)?who?introduced?Adam?to?his?mentor??? Cl?risseau?and?who?was?himself?just?about?to?publish?an?article?on?the?subject?of??Grec?? design.??It?is?hard?to?believe?that?Cochin?would?not?show?some?of?his?artwork?to?Adam.?26??In? addition,?as?Adam?met?Cl?risseau?just?before?he?himself?published?a?key?article?in?the? Mercure?de?France?in?which?he?criticized?the?Rococo?style,?it?is?hard?again?to?believe?that? they?would?not?have?discussed?the?subject?at?some?point.?Adam?is?also?thought?to?have?met? Piranesi,?Peyre,?Deproux?and?DeWailly???all?of?whom?were?likewise?strong?proponents?of? the?Neo?Classical?approach?to?architecture,?all?of?which?speaks?to?the?direction?of?the? prevailing?fashionable?current?at?that?moment?in?time,?as?well?as?its?pan?European?nature? and?the?particular?close?cultural?connections?between?England?and?France?where?it?came?to? a?shared?preference?for?the?classical?ideal.27?? ? Adam?frequently?included?designs?of?furniture?along?side?his?house?or?room?designs?and? often?he?would?recommend?furniture?makers?to?his?clients.?Others?did?this?too?but?not?as? often?as?Adam.??By?contrast,?Chambers?was?known?to?dislike?designing?furniture.28? Interestingly?enough,?English?furniture?makers?increasingly?recognized?the?importance?of? the?architect?during?this?period.??As?Chippendale?noted?in?the?introduction?to?his?first? Director:?? 24?Cl?risseau?was?also?thought?to?have?helped?Adam?draw?one?of?Adam?s?early?commissions.?(See:??K.?Eustace,? Robert?Adam,?Charles?Louis?Cl?risseau,?Michael?Rysbrack?and?the?Hopetoun?Chimney?piece,?pp.?743?752)? 25?This?quote?was?taken?from?T.?McCormick,?Charles?Louis?Cl?risseau?and?the?Genesis?of?Neo?Classicism,? Architectural?History?Foundation/MIT?Press,?New?York,?1990?where?it?was?reported?to?have?come?from?the? Diary?of?Robert?Adam?from?January?1755.?? 26?C.?Musgrave,?Adam?and?Hepplewhite?&?other?Neo?Classical?Furniture,?Faber?&?Faber,?London,?1966,?p.?27.? 27?C.?Musgrave,?Adam?and?Hepplewhite?&?other?Neo?Classical?Furniture,?p.?27.? 28?J.?Harris?and?M.?Snodin?(ed.),?Sir?William?Chambers:??Architect?to?George?III.? ????T.?McCormick,?Charles?Louis?Cl?risseau?and?the?Genesis?of?Neo?Classicism.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?132? ? ?Of?all?the?Arts?which?are?either?improved?or?ornamented?by?Architecture,?that?of?the?CABINET? MAKING?is?not?only?the?most?useful?and?ornamental,?but?capable?of?receiving?as?great?assistance? from?it?as?any?whatever.?29? ? It?is?also?clear?from?the?Director?that?Chippendale?not?only?fully?understood?the?importance? of?the?cabinetmaker?relative?to?the?architect?but?also?of?furniture?design?relative?to? architecture.30???? ? While?the?discoveries?of?Herculaneum?and?Pompeii?were?not?in?themselves?wholly? responsible?for?the?renewed?interest?in?the?classical,?it?is?generally?accepted?that?both? England?and?France?were?influenced?by?these?events.31??The?importance?of?these? discoveries?cannot?be?understated;?allowing?the?objects?of?everyday?life?of?these? civilizations?to?be?studied?first?hand?more?fully?for?the?first?time.??Although?architectural? remains?had?always?been?available,?now?interiors?and?domestic?furnishings?could?be? appreciated?for?the?first?time.?32??These?two?events?also?seemed?to?have?generated?much? excitement;?attracting?even?greater?publicity?around?classical?ideas?and?ideals?and?playing? directly?into?the?intellectual?fervour?of?the?Enlightenment.?? ? Ironically,?the?excavation?of?Herculaneum?(1738)?were?started?neither?by?France?nor? England,?but?by?Charles?de?Bourbon?(1716?1788),?King?of?Naples?and?later?Charles?III?of? 29?T.?Chippendale,?The?Gentleman?and?the?Cabinet?Maker?s?Director?(First?Edition),?T.?Chippendale,?London,? 1754.? 30?H.?Cescinsky,?The?Influence?of?the?Architect?on?English?Furniture,?The?Burlington?Magazine,?Vol.?36,?No.?204? (March),?1920,?pp.?134???135?+?138???140.??? 31?M.?Coutinho,?18th?Century?French?Furniture,?Calouste?Gulbenkian?Museum,?Lisbon,?1999,?p.?38?and?Interview? with?M.?Hirst,?Curator,?Waddesdon?Manor,?Nov.?2004?(Presently?head?of?collections?at?Chatsworth).? 32?Even?this?was?not?the?first?exploration?by?the?French?of?the?artistic?thought?based?on?the?archaeological? study.??As?early?as?1683,?Louis?XIV?s?able?assistant,?Colbert?was?assembling?information?on?ancient?Roman? architectural?styles?(Colbert?even?approved?the?creation?of?a?French?school?in?Italy?specifically?for?the?purpose? of?studying?the?ancient?arts?(See:?P.?Cret,?The?Ecole?des?Beaux?Arts?and?Architectural?Education,?The?Journal?of? the?American?Society?of?Architectural?Historians,?Vol?1,?No?2,?1941,?pp?3?15)?and?those?in?Italy?had?been? interested?in?the?ancient?civilizations?for?example?there?was?Johann?Winclkelmann?who?was?in?Italy?at?the? request?of?a?Cardinal?in?Italy?to?study?art?of?the?ancient?civilizations?both?for?the?esoteric?reasons?such?as? finding?the??truth??behind?art?and?for?financial?gain?as?a?dealer?in?antiquities?(See?J.?Winckelmann?(Translated? from?German?by?G.?Lodge),?History?of?Ancient?Art,?James?B.?Osgood?and?Co.,?Boston,?1873.)? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?133? Spain.?The?Bourbons?were?also?responsible?for?the?excavation?of?Pompeii?(1748)?and?Stabia? (1749)?and?represented?the?first?concerted?attempts?of?the?newly?emerging?science?of? archaeology?to?uncover?and?interpret?ancient?artefacts.?33??This?interest?was?characterised? by?a?growing?appreciation?of?antiquity?as?an?educative?force.??These?evacuations?attracted? the?attention?of?the?nobility?and?many?of?French,?English?and?Prussia?aristocratic?families? vied?for?the?privilege?of?owning?such?cultural?objet?d'art.34??? ? In?many?ways,?art?also?played?an?important?role?alongside?architecture?and?archaeology,?in? reviving?interest?in?the?classical.???A?number?of?French?artists?colonized?Rome?as?early?as?the? 1730?s?at?the?French?king?s?expense.???Writers?like?Johann?Joachim?Winckelmann?(1717??? 1768)?were?no?less?important.35?Winckelmann?s?scientific?approach?to?archaeology?helped? pioneer?the?study?of?the?classical?world?and?his?descriptions?of?Herculaneum?were?read? throughout?Europe.?These?included:?Sendschreiben?von?den?Herculanischen?Entdeckungen? (Letter?from?the?Discoveries?at?Herculaneum)???published?in?1762,?and?two?years?later?a? follow?up?report???Nachrichten?von?den?neuesten?Herculanischen?Entdeckungen?(News?of? the?Latest?Discoveries?at?Herculaneum).???His?two?major?work?Anmerkungen??ber?die? Baukunst?der?Alten?(Comments?on?the?Architecture?of?the?Ancients)?published?in?1760?and? Geschichte?der?Kunst?des?Alterthums?(The?History?of?Ancient?Art)?published?in?1764?were? immediately?translated?into?French?(1766)?and?shortly?thereafter?into?English?and?Italian. ? ? In?addition?to?an?Enlightenment?search?for??truth??and?all?of?this?earnest?historical? endeavour,?no?doubt?part?of?the?reason?for?the?increasing?popularity?of?the?Neo?Classical? style?was?a?growing?weariness?on?the?part?of?the?public?with?the?overblown?Rococo?style.36??? 33?The?Royal?Academy?and?The?Victoria?&?Albert?Museum,?The?Age?of?Neo?Classicism,?The?Arts?Council?of? Great?Britain,?London,?1972,?p.?xlvii.? 34?Among?the?Englishmen?who?benefited?were?Smith?Barry?(Marbury?Hall),?Thomas?Mansel?Talbot?(Margam),? the?William?Weddel?(Newby?Hall),?The?Royal?Academy?and?The?Victoria?&?Albert?Museum?and?many?others,? The?Age?of?Neo?Classicism,?p.?xlvii.? 35?Winckelmann?held?a?series?of?posts?that?placed?him?at?the?centre?of?archeological?activities?in?the?C18th????in? 1763,?he?became?Superintendent?of?Roman?Antiquities,?later?he?became?Librarian?at?the?Vatican?and?still?later? he?was?to?became?the?Secretary?to?Cardinal?Albani???a?wealthy?and?powerful?member?of?the?church.? 36?For?example,?at?a?later?time,?the?Arts?and?Crafts?movement?is?generally?accepted?as?developing?as?a?reaction? to?the?Victorian?designs?and?the?automated?methods?of?manufacturing.??In?fact,?Ruskin,?while?trying?to?point? out?his?dislike?of?the?Neo?Classical?style,?referred?to?architects?were?? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?134? According?to?S.?Eriksen,?the?reaction?to?Rococo?came?as?early?as?the?1730?s?in?France,?even? though?the?style?would?remain?the?dominant?fashion?for?several?decades.??Voltaire? expressed?the?shifting?mood?when?he?referred?to?the?Rococo?as:?? ? ???a?ridiculous?jumble?of?shells,?dragons,?reeds,?palm?trees?and?plants,?which?is?the?be?all?and?end?all? of?modern?interior?decoration.?37??? ? More?serious?criticisms?came?from?the?academicians???beginning?with?Soufflot?(discussed? above)?in?1741.??Three?years?later?Le?Blanc?argued?that?the?decorative?arts?had?lost?that? ?noble?simplicit?.?38??Ten?years?later,?Cochran?would?make?similar?remarks?in?the?Mercure? de?France?(1754)?and?criticize?craftsmen?for?their?lack?of??common?sense?.39??By?1752? France?s?leading?architect?Pierre?Vign??de?Vigny?had?adopted?the?Neo?Classical?and?what?he? called?the?architecture?of?the??Grecs?et?des?Romains?.40??? ? The?decline?of?the?Rococo?took?different?forms?in?different?countries.??In?France,?it? represented?for?the?most?part?a?shift?in?stylistic?preference.?However,?in?England?it? represented?in?part?a?kind?of?patriotic?statement.??Since?the?Rococo?was?so?strongly? associated?with?France,?England?s?embrace?of?Neo?Classicism?was?in?part?an?attempt?to? break?France?s?historic?cultural?hegemony.41?Robert?Adam?for?example?argued?that?the? reign?of?George?III?represented?an?era:?? ? ??men?who?liked?triglyphs,?and?the?painters?and?sculptors?as?obsessed?admirers?of?antique?marbles.???? ? See?The?Royal?Academy?and?The?Victoria?&?Albert?Museum,?The?Age?of?Neo?Classicism,?p.?xxii.? 37?This?was?taken?from?Voltaire?s?Le?Temple?du?gout?of?1733?and?referenced?by?S.?Eriksen?(Translated?by?P.? Thorton),?Early?Neo?Classicism?in?France,?p.?25. 38?S.?Eriksen?(Translated?by?P.?Thorton),?Early?Neo?Classicism?in?France,?p.?26.? 39?S.?Eriksen?(Translated?by?P.?Thorton),?Early?Neo?Classicism?in?France,?p.?25.? 40?S.?Eriksen?(Translated?by?P.?Thorton),?Early?Neo?Classicism?in?France,?p.?29.? 41?To?further?add?irony?to?the?spread?of?the?Neo?Classical?design,?in?the?newly?formed?United?States?of? America,?the?Neo?Classical?design?became?popular?however?they?called?it?the?Federal?Style?in?part?to? differentiate?themselves?from?the?English?from?whom?they?just?recently?broke?away.? ? The?United?States?also?embraced?the?designs?that?England?called?Neo?Classical;?however?they?called?it?Federal? in?order?to?separate?their?fashion?and?themselves?from?England.??Again,?the?adoption?of?the?Neo?Classical? appeared?to?have?became?a?political?statement?(See?F.?Kimball,?Thomas?Jefferson?and?the?Origins?of?the? Classical?Revival?in?America,?Art?and?Archaeology,?May,??1915,?pp?219?227.,?and?B.?Pickens,?Mr.?Jefferson?as? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?135? ? ???no?less?remarkable?than?that?of?Pericles,?Augustus?or?the?Medici.?42???? ? However,?it?is?clear?that?the?adoption?of?the?Neo?Classical?style?represented?more?than?the? appropriation?of?aesthetic?detail?but?was?a?striving?after?classical?ideals?such?as??truth,? purity,?nobility,?and?honesty?43?consistent?with?the?Enlightenment?view?that?classical?art? represented?in?some?fundamental?way,?the?natural?order?of?things.??J.?F.?Blondel?s? illustrated?account?of?Neo?Classical?design?in?Diderot?s?and?d?Alembert?s?Dictionnaire?des? Sciences?(1762)?probably?best?represents?the?apotheosis?of?this?transition?from?the?Rococo? to?the?Neo?Classical.44??? ? Was?it?England?or?France?that?lead?the?development?of?the?Neo?Classical?design???While? some?would?argue?that?the?late?C18th?represents?the?moment?when?England?overtook? France?for?the?first?time?as?the?leading?style?maker?on?the?European?stage?45?others?argue? that?it?was?the?French?that?first?introduced?the?classical?style?to?the?world.?46???What?is?clear? is?that?whichever?country?might?hold?the?cultural?ascendancy?in?this?respect,?there?was? substantial?interaction?between?the?two?countries.??While?France,?with?its?well?developed? connections?with?Italy?and?its?early?academic?institutions?did?have?a?head?start,?it?is?also? clear?that?architects?from?both?countries?interacted?a?great?deal?during?this?time;??William? Chambers?attending?a?French?Academy?for?example?and?Robert?Adam?learning?from?the? Revolutionary.?Architect,?The?Journal?of?the?Society?of?Architectural?Historians,?Vol?34,?No?4,?1975.,?pp?257? 279,?and?E.?Miles,?The?Young?American?Nation?and?the?Classical?World,?Journal?of?the?History?of?Ideas,?Vol.?35,? No.?2,?1974,?pp.?259?274.,?and?J.?Greene,??American?Furniture?of?the?18th?Century,?Taunton?Press,?Newtown,? CT,?USA,?1996)? 42?The?Royal?Academy?and?The?Victoria?&?Albert?Museum,?The?Age?of?Neo?Classicism,?p.?xxii.? 43?The?Royal?Academy?and?The?Victoria?&?Albert?Museum,?The?Age?of?Neo?Classicism,?p.?xxiii.? 44?S.?Eriksen?(Translated?by?P.?Thorton),?Early?Neo?Classicism?in?France:??The?Creation?of?the?Louis?Seize?Style?in? Architectural?Decoration,?Furniture?and?Ormolu,?Gold?and?Silver?and?Sevres?Porcelain?in?the?Mid?Eighteenth? Century,?p.?41.? 45For?example?John?Gloag?argues?that??Pompadour?s?legacy?to?national?taste,?which?owed?more?to?the?work?of? Robert?Adam?than?was?ever?admitted?or?even?suspected?by?French?society??J.?Gloag,?Guide?to?Furniture?Styles:?? English?and?French?1450?to?1850,?Adam?&?Charles?Black,?London,?1972,?p.?180.? 46?In?a?lecture?by?Arthur?T.?Bolton?on?31?March?1925?for?the?L.C.C.?at?the?Geffrye?Museum,?Shoreditch?(The? typescript?is?at?the?Soane?Museum).??He?stated?that?the??work?of?Percier?and?Fountaine?for?Napoleon??was? ?washed?out?Adam??in?his?attempt?to?dissuade?others?that?Adam?was??merely?imported?a?phase?of?French? work??E.??Harris,?Bolton?s?Adam?Room?at?Wembley,?The?Journal?of?the?Furniture?History?Society,?Vol?XXIX,?1993,? p.?204?? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?136? Figure?3?8:??The?tapestry?room?at?Croome? Court?with?tapestries?supplied?by?Gobelins?in? France.??Although?Adam?designed?this?room,?it? still?included?a?number?of?Rococo?elements.?? French?artist?Charles?Louis?Cl?risseau.?However,?it?is?also?clear?that?England???perhaps?due? to?the?architectural?accomplishments?of?Adam?in?particular???was?much?quicker?in?its? adoption?of?the?Neo?Classical?style.?? ? The?classical?style?was?introduces?by?Robert?Adam?when?he?returned?from?Italy?in?1758.??His? two?brothers?(John?&?James)?had?already?begun?work?on?Dumfries?house?in?Scotland,?but? soon?after?setting?up?Adam?and?Company?together,?Robert?began?work?on?Harewood? House?and?Kedleston?Hall???key?Neo?Classical?sites.?A?couple?of?years?earlier?(1755),?James? Stuart?had?begun?Shugborough?Hall,?followed?it?in?1758?with?Spencer?House?for?John?the?1st? Earl?Spencer.??Around?this?time,?Sir?William?Chambers?(1723?1796)?also?returned?to?England? to?set?up?his?architectural?firm?and?begin?work?on?The?Pagoda?in?Blackheath?in?1755?(which? was?oriental?in?inspiration?too)?and?later? Somerset?House,?in?1776.47??Despite?earlier? forays?into?the?Neo?Classical?field?by?others,? Adam?remains?the?pre?eminent?architect?of? this?new?style;?Stuart?was?not?very?ambitious? and?suffered?from?ill?health?and?a?possible? drink?problem?and?while?Chambers?was?more? productive?than?Stuart,?he?was?neither?as? prolific?nor?as?consistent?as?Adam.? ?In?France?there?is?some?question?about?who? was?most?instrumental?in?popularizing?the? Neo?Classical?style?as?no?obvious?figure? emerges.?The?first?influential?advocate?of?the? style,?was?Madame?de?Pompadour?but?she?died?in?1764???relatively?early?in?terms?of?the? Neo?Classical?era.?The?first?Parisian?house?in?the?new?style?was?that?commissioned?by?the? classical?scholar?Lalive?de?Jully?from?the?architect?Barreau?which?was?built?in?the?1750s.48? 47?H.?Roberts,?A?Neoclassical?Episode?at?Windsor,?Journal?of?the?Furniture?History,?Vol.?33,?1997?pp.177?187.? 48?Fran?ois?Dominique?Barreau?de?Chefdeville?(1725???1765).??Barreau?won?the?Prix?de?Rome?for?a?building? inspired?by?ancient?buildings.?? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?137? Certainly?the?first?major?architectural?project?was?Soufflot?s?Panth?on?(1757),?considered? the?most??beautiful?monument?built?since?the?Renaissance.?49??In?terms?of?Royal?buildings,,? the?first?notable?example?in?the?Neo?Grec?style?was?the?Pavillon?de?Louveciennes?built?in? 1771?for?Madame?du?Barry?by?the? architect?C.?N.?Ledoux?.?The?design,?it? should?be?pointed?out,?included?neo? classical?interior?and?furnishings?and?was? completed?a?year?before?James?Stuart? designed?Spencer?House.?50??? ? It?is?clear?that?cultural?influences?went? back?and?forth?between?England?and? France.??As?noted?above,?Chamber?s? studied?in?France,?Adam?s?was?tutored?by? a?French?artisan?and?all?three?English? architects?visited?the?French?academy?in? Italy.???Cl?risseau?provided?Adam?s?with? drawings?for?a?fireplace?that?Robert? Adam?s?brother?James?produced.???It?is? also?equally?possible?to?trace?the? profound?influence?of?France?in?Robert? Adam?s?tapestry?rooms?at?Croome?Court,? 49?S.?Eriksen?(Translated?by?P.?Thorton),?Early?Neo?Classicism?in?France:??The?Creation?of?the?Louis?Seize?Style?in? Architectural?Decoration,?Furniture?and?Ormalu,?Gold?and?Silver?and?Sevres?Porcelain?in?the?Mid?Eighteenth? Century,?p.?53.? 50?One?thing?that?needs?to?be?pointed?out,?and?that?is?at?a?later?time,?William?Chambers?was?to?work?with?the? Royal?family?to?refit?Windsor?Castle?to?the??new?style?.??Although?this?shows?significant?support?for?the?new? fashion,?it?does?not?show?the?Royal?family?being?leaders?in?the?fashion.??At?such?a?late?time?(1776)?many?would? agree?that?King?George?III?could?hardly?be?called?a?leader?in?the?fashion.? Figure?3?9:??This?is?the?decoration?surrounding?a?picture? frame?over?a?fireplace?mantle?in?Marie?Antoinette's? private?rooms?in?Versailles.??Notice?the?detailed?floral? design?that?was?present?on?much?of?Riesener's?later? furniture?for?the?queen.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?138? Moor?Park,?Newby?Hall?and?Osterley???and?the?Tapestry?Rooms?at?Croome?Court?(supplied? by?Gobelins???See?3?8.)?for?example,?determined?the?character?of?the?furniture?and?the? design?of?the?whole?room.51?? ? C. How?were?Neo?Classical?Designs?Applied?to?Furniture?? ? As?noted?earlier,?there?had?not?always?been?a?direct?stylistic?connection?between? architecture,?interiors?and?furniture?designs???especially?in?England.???However,?in?the?early? C18th,?French?architecture?began?to?develop?the?idea?of?a?unity?of?style,?uniting?exterior? and?interior.52???Increasingly,?the?French?went?to?great?pains?to?have?everything?match?and? architectural?motifs?found?on?the?interior?fabric?were?repeated?on?the?furniture?provided?to? furnish?the?scheme.? 51?C.?Musgrave,?C.,?Adam?and?Hepplewhite?and?other?Neo?Classical?Furniture,?p.?62.? 52?F.?Watson,?"Holland?and?Daguerre:?French?Undercurrents?in?English?Neo?Classic?Furniture?Design,"?Apollo,? vol.?XCVI,?Oct.,?1972,?pp.?282?287.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?139? ? A?typical?example?is?shown?in?Figure?3?9,?in?which?the?detailed?floral?and?foliage? arrangement?is?mirrored?in?the?detailed?ormolu?on?the?furniture?provided?by?Riesener?for? these?rooms???this?ormolu?will?be?discussed?in?detail?in?Chapter?V?(P.?192).? ? What?is?interesting?is?that?the?design?process?was?never?very?uniform?in?France.??In?the?case? of?Royal?houses,?architects?would?generally?work?closely?with?the?garde?meuble,?leaving?the? furniture?maker?to?come?up?with?appropriate?furniture?design.??In?other?situations?the? Figure?3?10:?These?are?three?pictures?of??les? Appartements?Grand?de?la?Reine?in?Versailles? showing?how?the?designs?were?cordinated??by?the? architect/interior?designer.???Note?the?ormolu? decoration?running?around?the?top?edge?of?each? pieces?and?the?pilasters?on?the?corners?matches?? the?gilt?bronze?decoration?on?the?marble?fireplace? surround.?? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?140? furniture?maker?would?be?obliged?to? incorporate?specific?design?elements?(motifs,? colour?schemes,?etc.)?specified?by?the? architect.??? ? By?contrast,?in?England,?the?general?practice? was?for?the?architect?to?design?the?exterior? and/or?the?rooms;?but?it?was?usually?left?to? the?owner?to?obtain?their?own?furnishings:? ? ?During?the?greater?part?of?the?17th?century?it?was?rare?for? British?architects?to?concern?themselves?at?all?with?the? physical?layout?and?appearance?of?the?interiors?of?houses.?? The?design?of?the?house?was?the?responsibility?of?the?patron? and?the?master?builder.??53? ? One?of?the?first?English?architects?known?to?have?to? changed?this?system?by?designing?a?complete?an?interior? room?was?John?Smythson?(1588?1634)?for?Bolsover? Castle?in?Derbyshire?(See?Figure?3?11).54???Christopher? Wren?(1632??1723)?was?another?to?provide?unified? schemes?of?this?kind,?however,?this?practice?was?to? remain?relatively?scarce?and?it?was?not?until?the?late? C18th?that?the?idea?of?a??unity?of?design??was?to?become? the?norm.55?? ? 53?C.?Smith,?Eighteenth?Century?Decoration:??Design?and?the?Domestic?Interior?in?England,?Weidenfeld?and? Nicolson,?London,?1993,?p.?11.?? 54?C.?Smith,?Eighteenth?Century?Decoration:??Design?and?the?Domestic?Interior?in?England,?p.?11.? 55?H.?Cescinsky,?The?Influence?of?the?Architect?on?English?Furniture,?pp.134?135?+?138?140.? Figure?3?12:??Lalive?portrait?by?Greuze?in? 1759?showing?a?piece?of?Neo?Classical? furniture???notice?the?classical?inspired? ornamentation?on?the?chair?that?Lalive?is? sitting.?? Figure?3?11:?Bolsover?Castle???an?early?example?of? where?the?interior?was?designed?by?the?architect.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?141? Perhaps?this?unity?came?about?at?this?time?because?the?Rococo?style?had?been?largely? promoted?in?England?by?furniture?designers?and?(conversely)?it?was?architects?who?were? largely?responsible?for?promoting?the?Neo?Classical?style?in?England.56???Another? contributing?factor?may?have?been?that?the?number?of?commissions?given?to?architect?were? essentially?refurbishments?(a??make?over??to?use?a?modern?term)?many?of?which?focused? their?efforts?on?interiors.??Adam?(arguably)?was?the?only?major?Neo?Classical?architect?who? fully?embraced?the?idea?that?furniture?design?should?also?be?an?integral?part?of?an? architect?s?work.??Even?though?both?Stuart?and?Chambers?designed?Neo?Classical?Furniture,? 56?Again,?this?is?not?to?say?that?the?architect?always?left?the?furniture?selection?to?the?owner?in?England,?there? are?a?number?of?exceptions.??Another?example?is?William?Kent?(1685?1748)?who?was?another?early?major? wholly?English?architect?to?enjoy?designing?every?aspect?of?a?house?from?its?setting?to?its?contents.?There?are? even?examples?of?architects?who?use?Rococo?designs?of?furniture?to?fit?into?their?architectural?designs.?? However,?this?combination?of?furniture?and?architecture?being?designed?in?combination?was?rare?in?England.? (See?I.?Hall,?Some?Lightoler?Designs?for?Burton?Constable,?Journal?of?the?Furniture?History?Society,?Vol.?21,? 1985,?pp.?229)?There?was?one?article?that?did?discuss?William?Kent?working?with?a?few?furniture?makers,? however?even?here?most?of?the?examples?are?mirrors,?pedestals,?and?some?tables?but?none?of?the?examples? included?anything?more?sophisticated?such?as?desks,?chairs,?game?or?work?tables,?etc.??(See?G.?Beard,?William? Kent?and?the?Cabinet?Makers,?The?Burlington?Magazine,?Vol?117,?No?873,?1975,?pp.?865?867.)? Figure 0 ??Figure?3?13:??Drawings?of?two?Neo?Classical?English?chairs?that?were?recommended?for?? ???purchase?by?the?Marquise.??Showing?the?Marquise?s?interest?in?English?designs.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?142? as?C.?Gilbert?notes,?only?had?a???fringe?interest?in?designing?furniture????they?did?not? embrace?it?in?the?way?that?Adam?did.?57?? Before?the?Neo?Classical?revival?it?was??openly?acknowledged?by?English?furniture?makers??58? that?they?drew?inspiration?from?France.??However,?the?respect?was?mutual?and?influences? also?ran?the?other?way:?? ? ?Pierre?Verlet?wrote?that?in?a?study?of?the?decorative?arts?in?the?eighteenth?century?the?francomania? of?some?great?English?amateurs?must?be?counterbalanced?by?the?anglomania?of?several?French? personalities.??59? ? The?Marquis?de?Marigny?for?example?was?typical?in?this?regard,?preferring?to?furnish?with? English?furniture?that?he?admired?for?its?simplicity?of?design.60??According?to?C.?Sargentson,? it?was?quite?fashionable?for?Marchard?Merciers?to?buy?goods?from?England?and?several? specialized?in?such?purchases.61??There?also?several?indications?that?the?French?increasingly? looked?to?the?English?in?the?late?C18th?for?inspiration?in?respect?of?furniture?design.??In?the? years?immediately?before?the?revolution?for?example,?the?French?can?be?seen?to?simplify? their?cabinet?furniture.??Following?English?design,?ornate?marquetry?became?less?common? and?French?furniture?makers?began?to?make?increasing?use?of?grain?in?the?wood?to?decorate? their?furniture.62??Similarly,?in?the?late?C18th,?the?French?furniture?designers?began?to?follow? the?English?practice?of?making?chairs?out?of?solid?mahogany.63??In?fact?(as?noted?recently)? 57?C.?Gilbert,?The?Life?and?Works?of?Thomas?Chippendale,?Studio?Vista/Christies,?London,?1978,?p.?119.? 58?J.?Gloag,?Guide?to?Furniture?Styles:??English?and?French?1450?to?1850,?Adam?&?Charles?Black,?London,?1972,? p.?180.? 59?See?A.?Gordon?and?M.?D?chery,?The?Marquis?de?Marigny?s?Furniture,?p.?87.?These?authors?were? paraphrasing?from?P.?Verlet,?Le?Bronzes?Dor?s?Fran?ais?du?XVIII?E?Si?cle,?Picard,?Paris,?1987,?p.?67? 60?See:?A.?Gordon?and?M.?D?chery,?The?Marquis?de?Marigny?s?Purchases?of?English?Furniture?and?Objects,?pp.? 86?108.? 61?See?C.?Sargentson,?Merchants?and?Luxury?Markets:?The?Marchands?Merciers?of?Eighteenth?Century?Paris,? Victoria?and?Albert?Museum,?London,?1996,?pp.?114?115.? 62?Hirst,?Matthew,?Curator,?at?Waddesdon?Manor?(Presently?head?of?collections?at?Chatsworth),?Conducted? Wed.,?17,?Nov?2004,?and?Paul?Tear???Course?Leader?at?BCUC,?Thurs.?18,?Nov.?2004.? 63?N.?Gasc?and?G.?Mabille,?The?Nissim?de?Camondo?Museum,?Mus?es?et?Monuments?de?France,?Paris,?1991.?? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?143? the?French?were?somewhat?envious?of?the?English?monopoly?of?the?mahogany?trade.64? England?on?the?other?hand?began?to?copy?France?by?adopting? more?complicated?marquetry?designs?and?(in?a?somewhat? limited?way)?began?to?make?more?of?decorative?metal?mounts? ??Chippendale?s?Harewood?Library?Table?is?a?good?example.??? ? What?else?might?be?said?about?this?mutual?exchange???We? know?for?example?that?Chippendale?s?Director?found?its?way? to?France?and?in?fact?was?translated?to?French?a?few?years? after?it?was?first?published.?65??We?also?know?that?Chippendale? shipped?chairs?from?France?to?his?workshop?then?gilded?and? upholstered?them.?We?know?that?Madame?de?Pompadour?s? brother,?Abel?Fran?ois?Poisson?de?Vandi?res?or?Marquis?de? Marigny,?was?one?of?a?number?of?French?aristocrats?who? travelled?to?England?to?purchase?furniture???the?Marquis?s? first?trip?being?in?1756?66.??With?the?help?of?a?dealer67,?he? purchased?180?mahogany?chairs,?6?clothing?presses,?a?shaving? table,?6?gaming?tables,?chandeliers,?candelabra,?candlesticks? and?a?billiard?table!?68???The?Marquis?also?later?made?a?cunning? purchase?of?English?furniture?from?England?s?French?Ambassador?after?he?was?recalled?from? 64?According?to?A.?Bowett,?the?increased?usage?of?mahogany?as?a?furniture?wood?came?about?as?the?result?of? changes?in?the?UK?tax?laws?early?in?the?century,?which?allowed?for?cheap?imports?from?their?colonies?in?the? new?world?and?the?Far?East.?(See?A.?Bowett,?After?The?Naval?Stores?Act:??Some?Implications?for?English?Walnut? Furniture,?Journal?of?The?Furniture?History?Society,?Vol?31,?1995,?pp.?43??56.??See?also?John?Cross,?FHS).? 65?The?French?version?of?the?third?edition?was?published?the?following?year,?being?translated?for?the? ?convenience?of?foreigners??and?was?titled?Guide?Du?Tapissier,?De?l???b?niste,?see?C.?Gilbert,?The?Life?and?Works? of?Thomas?Chippendale,?p.?83.?? 66??The?inspiration?for?his?interest?in?English?furniture?was?in?no?doubt?influenced?by?his?good?friend?and? partner?during?his?tour?of?Italy,?Abb??Jean?Benard?Le?Blanc?(1707?1781)?who?had?visited?England?a?number?of? years?before,?in?1737?(A.?Gordon?and?M.?D?chery,?The?Marquis?de?Marigny?s?Purchases?of?English?Furniture? and?Objects,?p.?86.)? 67?Although?over?time?there?were?actually?several?sources?that?Marigny?used?to?purchase?English?furniture,?his? primary?contact?was?the?agency?of?Count?Louis?de?Reinach?(b.?1708)?who?took?many?orders?from?Marigny,? ranging?from?glassware,?to?gaming?tables,?desks,?and?quite?a?large?number?of?chairs.?? 68?All?of?this?is?documented?by?letters?that?were?written?between?the?dealer?(named?Reinach)?and?the?Marquis? de?Marigny.??See?A.?Gordon?and?M.?D?chery,?M.,?The?Marquis?de?Marigny?s?Purchases?of?English?Furniture?and? Objects,?p.?88.)? Figure?3?14?Filing?cabinet? made?for?A.L.?La?live?de?Jully? thought?to?have?been?made? before?1757.??(Currently?in?the? Musee?Conde,?Chantilly)?? ? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?144? France?following?the?war?of?independence?in? America?and?apparently?was?always?keen?to? point?out?the?quality?of?his?English?furniture?to? the?many?visitors?to?his?home.???? ? The?earliest?documented?suite?of?French?Neo? Classical?furniture?was?probably?that?designed? for?the?French?financier,?Live?de?Jully? alongside?his?new?Neo?Classical?house.?69??S.? Eriksen?cites?two?pieces?of?evidence?to? support?this;?a?painting?by?Greuze?of?Live?de? Jully?made?before?1759?(see?Figure?3?12)?and? a?drawing?of?the?chair?upon?which?de?Jully?is? sitting?(See?Figure?3?15).?Furniture?designed? by?Louis?Joseph?Le?Lorrain?around?1756?57? can?be?seen?in?Figure?3?14???the?table?and? filing?cabinet?are?now?in?Musee?Conde?at? Chantilly.?In?later?communications?from?La?Live?de?Jully?and?Cochin,?these?pieces?are? described?as?being?in?the??Go?t?Grec?.70?This?would?seem?to?indicating?his?understanding?of? the?new?Neo?Classical?fashion.71??As?early?as?1755,?Horatio?Walpole?(1717??1797)?wrote?to? friends?in?England?that?everything?in?Paris?must?be??a?la?grecqu??.72?According?to?E.?Harris:???? 69?S.?Eriksen?(Translated?by?P.Thorton),?Early?Neo?Classicism?in?France:??The?Creation?of?the?Louis?Seize?Style?in? Architectural?Decoration,?Furniture?and?Ormolu,?Gold?and?Silver?and?Sevres?Porcelain?in?the?Mid?Eighteenth? Century.?It?should?be?pointed?out?that?Musgrave?and?Kimball?argue?that?it?was?England?who?produced?the?first? Neo?Classical?revival?but?their?argument?is?weaker.??See?also:?? ??C.?Musgrave,?Adam?and?Hepplewhite?and?other?Neo?Classical?Furniture.? ??F.?Kimball,?The?Beginnings?of?Style?Pompadour,?1751?9,?Gazette?de?Beaux?Arts,?Vol?6,?1954,?p.?57?64.? ??F.?Watson,?F.,?Wallace?Collection?Catalogues.?Furniture,?William?Clowes,?London,?1956.? 70?S.?Eriksen,?Lalive?de?Jully's?Furniture?'a?la?grecque',?The?Burlington?Magazine,?Vol?103,?No?701,?1961,?pp.? 340?338.? 71?R.?Edwards,?counters?this?argument?with?the?observation?that?William?Kent,?had?designed?furniture?in? England?that?displayed?many?of?the?Neo?Classical?elements?20?years?earlier?and?one?could?continue?this?with? Inigo?Jones?who?designed?based?on?Classical?forms?before?that.??However,?this?seems?to?be?taking?this?debate? to?an?extreme?couldn?t?one?just?as?easily?argue?that?Neo?Classical?furniture?was?first?designed?by?the?Romans? Figure?3?15:??Drawings?of?furniture?is?from?a? collection?of?drawings?belonging?to?Matthew? Boulton?(1728??1809).??It?is?believed?that?he? picked?up?these?when?he?visited?Paris?in? 1765 and?that?these?are?based?on?the? designs?by?the?painter?L.?J.?Le?Lorrain?whom? Lalive?himself?was?said?to?have?designed?the? furniture.?? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?145? ? ?The?acme?of?fashion?was?to?do?one?s?buying?in?Paris.??Horace?Walpole?s?Parisian?journals?record? almost?daily?visits?to?the?marchands?merciers,?often?to?execute?commissions?for?his?friends?at?home.?? Adam?patrons?the?Earl?of?Coventry,?William?Weddel,?Sir?Laurence?Dundas,?Sir?Henry?Bridgeman,?the? Earl?of?March?and?others??are?among?the?countless?Englishmen?who?imported?French?pieces?and? designs?in?the?latest?style?antique.?73? ? Interestingly?enough,?the?French?Royal?family?were? still?purchasing?both?Neo?Classical?and?Rococo?pieces? at?this?time,?once?again?demonstrating?their?lack?of? leadership?in?terms?of?setting?fashion?in?France.74?? ? In?England,?it?was?probably?Stuart?who?(arguably)? first?designed?furniture?in?the?Neo?Classical?style?in? 1757?for?Kedleston?and?shortly?thereafter?in?1759?for? Spencer?House.??W.?Chambers?executed?his?first? piece?of?furniture?in?the?Classical?style?in?1759,?in?the? form?of?a?chair?designed?specifically?for?the?President? of?the?Royal?Society?of?Arts?(see?Figure?3?16).??Both? of?these?examples?predate?Adam?s?first?Neo?Classical? piece?of?furniture???a?sideboard?for?Kedleston,? installed?in?1762.???? ? In?France,?Riesener?(who?is?to?figure?large?later)?produced?his?first?piece?for?the?Royal? family,???a?Bureau?du?Roi?(a?roll?top?desk)???in?the?Rococo?style?in?(delivered?in?1769),? and?the?Greeks!???R.?Edwards,?Review:??Neo?Classical?Furniture,?(Review?of?Adam?and?Hepplewhite?and?Other? Neo?Classical?Furniture?by?Musgrave,?C.),?The?Burlington?Magazine,?Vol.?108,?No.?765,?1966,?pp.?635?637.?? 72?It?was?Musgrave?who?concluded?that?this?statement?was?an?exaggeration,?in?that?it?was?known?that?Rococo? designs?were?still?being?produced?by?and?for?the?most?fashionable?people?at?the?time.??Perhaps,?this? explanation?was?an?expression?of?the?excitement?of?a?new?and?(he?thought)?growing?fashion.??C.?Musgrave,? Adam?and?Hepplewhite?and?other?Neo?Classical?Furniture,?p.175.? 73?E.?Harris,?Furniture?of?Robert?Adam,?pp.?27?28.?? 74?As?late?as?1770,?Marie?Antoinette?took?a?delivery?of?a?Rococo?toilet?table?that?was?made?by?Joubert.??This? was?reported?by?S.?Eriksen,?Marigny?and?Le?Go?t?Grec,?p.96.? Figure?3?16:??Classically?inspired?chair? designed?by?William?Chambers?in?1759?for? the?Royal?Society?of?Arts.?? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?146? however?this?piece?was?actually?started?while?his?shop?master?Oeben?was?still?alive.?? Therefore,?in?all?likelihood,?Oeben?designed?this?desk?only?to?be?completed?and?delivered?by? Riesener.???However,?one?of?his?earliest?secr?taire???abattants?(designed?in?1763?before?he? took?over?the?Oeben?workshop)?had?many?of?the?attributes?of?the?Neo?Classical?style;?it?was? symmetrical?for?example?and?it?made?many?references?to?classical?themes?(acanthus?leaves,? guilloche?patterned?ormolu,?etc.???see?Appendix?C???p.?434).??As?time?progressed,?Riesener?s? work?became?simpler,?due?no?doubt?in?part?by?the?increasing?preference?for?the?simpler? Neo?Classical?line?but?perhaps?also?in?part?by?pressure?from?the?Garde?Meuble?at?that?time? to?reduce?costs.??Figure?3?15?shows?two?Bureau?a?cylindr??produced?by?Riesener?s? workshop.??While?the?earlier?model?is?definitely?in?a?very?elaborate?Rococo?style,?the?later? example?is?elegant?but?far?more?restrained?in?its?design.?? ? Chippendale?makes?for?an?interesting?comparison?with?Riesener.?Much?of?his?early?work? was?in?Rococo?and?Chinese?styles,?as?can?be?seen?illustrated?in?the?first?two?editions?of?his? Figure?3?17:??On?the?left?a?late?C18th?Rococo?styled?bureau?a?cylindr??frequently?called?bureau?du?roi?by?Riesener?in? 1769???it?was?the?first?piece?of?furniture?that?Riesener?delivered?to?the?Royal?family?after?he?took?over?Oeben?s? workshop?after?his?death.?On?the?right?is?the?last?bureau?a?cylindr??delivered?to?Marie?Antoinette?in?1786?executed?in?a? much?simpler?design,?despite?the?use?of?very?exotic?materials?such?as?silver?and?mother?of?pearl.? : Late 18th Century 'Bureau a cylindre' by Claude-Charles Saunier (1735-1807) showing use of veneer grains for decoration.52 MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?147? Director?(1754?and?1756).??By?1762?when?the?third?edition?of?the?Director?was?published? Chippendale?can?be?seen?to?have?adopted?the?more??modern??Neo?Classical?style.??As? Chippendale?(to?the?best?of?our?knowledge)?had?never?undertaken?a?Grand?Tour,?he? probably?acquired?his?Neo?Classical?education?from?the?architects?that?he?worked?along? side.?75?C.?Gilbert?suggests?Chippendale?probably?had?access?to?texts?on?ancient?architecture?? (such?as?J.?Dawkin?s?and?R.?Wood?s?Ruins?of?Palmyra?(1753)?and?The?Ruins?of?Balbec?(1757)? or?illustrated?works?on?architecture?and?archaeology?by?a?variety?of?authors???perhaps? including?the?work?published?by?figures?like?Adam,?Chambers?and?Stuart.?Of?course,?his? Director?offers?a?definitive?architectural?prologue,?setting?out?the?key?elements?of?the?Neo? Classical?style???its?detail,?proportions?etc.???together?with?a?close?explanation?of?their? relevance?to?furniture?design.???? ? Following?the?success?of?Chippendale?s?Director,?a?raft?of?other?publications?was?to?follow,? the?most?famous?being:???? ? ? Thomas?Sheraton,?The?Cabinet?Maker?and?Upholsters?Drawing?Book,?(1794)?? ? George?Hepplewhite,?The?Cabinet?Maker?and?Upholsterer's?Guide,?(1794)? ? From?what?has?been?written,?it?is?clear?that?explaining?how?and?when?the?Neo?Classical? style?started?is?very?complicated.??C.?Gilbert?and?S.?Eriksen,?for?example,?argue?that?the?Neo? Classical?style?originated?in?the?French?Academy?in?Rome,?somewhere?between?1740?and? 1750.76??While?it?they?may?be?correct?in?suggesting?the?French?Academy?in?Rome?did?initiate? 75?There?is?some?speculation?as?to?where?Chippendale?received?his?artistic?training.??As?we?know,?England?at? the?time?had?determined?that?some?sort?of?practical?training?was?needed?for?crafts?persons?such?as?furniture? makers?and?efforts?were?being?made?to?provide?this?instruction?to?the?crafts?industry.?(See?A.?Puetz,?Design? Instruction?for?Artisans?in?Eighteenth?Century?Britain,?Journal?of?Design?History,?Vol?12,?No?3,?1999,?pp.?217? 239.)?Thus,?Chippendale?may?have?availed?himself?to?some?training?either?in?York?before?he?came?to?London,? or?in?a?private?school?in?the?St.?Martin?s?(St.?Martin?s?Lane?Academy)?area?in?London.??At?the?very?least,?he? probably?associated?himself?with?many?of?the?students?and?learned?by?observation?and?questioning?the?other? students.?See?C.?Gilbert,?The?Life?and?Works?of?Thomas?Chippendale,?p.?121.? 76?Harris,?J.,?1966,?Early?Neo?Classical?Furniture,?pp.?1???6.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?148? the?conversation?around?the?Neo?Classical?style?it?was?probably?not?a?defining?influence.?77??? In?this?connection,?perhaps?it?should?be?more?widely?acknowledged?that?Madame?de? Pompadour?provided?greater?impetus?to?the?movement?in?promoting?the?first??official?? expression?of?interest?in?the?idea?of?Neo?Classical?design.?Of?course,?we?should?not?forget? the?part?played?by?the?discovery?of?the?ruins?of?Herculaneum?in?1738?and?of?Pompeii?10? years?later???and?the?re?discovery?of?the?Doric?Temples?of?Paestum?in?1745.?All?of?these? factors?contributed?to?the?adoption?of?the?Neo?Classical?style?in?England?and?France.?? ? In?terms?of?official?interest?and?in?terms?of?the?earliest?expressions?of?the?Neo?Classical? design,?France?perhaps?was?ahead?of?England.??However,?it?was?to?be?the?English?who?were? to?embrace?the?Neo?Classical?with?a?fervour?that?was?to?recast?much?of?the?British?urban? and?rural?landscape?during?the?C18th,?in?such?a?way?as?to?rebrand?it?(to?use?a?modern?term)? and?permanently?identify?it?with?the?Neo?Classical?Revival?and?(arguably)?the?work?of? Robert?Adam?in?particular78.?? ? C. Concluding?Remarks? In?the?exploration?to?develop?this?thesis,?there?have?been?several??theories??as?to?how?and? when?the?Neo?Classical?style?started.???As?with?most?complex?new?trends,?the?answer?is?very? complex?involving?a?number?of?factors.??One?suggestion?was?that?the?Neo?Classical? approach?to?design?was?developed?in?the?French?Academy?in?Rome?somewhere?between? 1740?and?1750.79??While?it?seems?likely?that?C.?Gilbert?and?S.?Eriksen?are?correct?in?that,?it?is? likely?that?the?French?Academy?in?Rome?did?impact?the?initial?conversation?about?the?Neo? 77?C.?Gilbert?agrees?with?S.?Eriksen?when?he?concludes?that?while?this?academy?did?impact?the?start?of?the?Neo? Classical?movement?in?architecture,?it?was?not?the?major?factor?driving?its?becoming?the?next?fashion?in? architectural?design.?See,?for?example,?C.?Gilbert,?The?Life?and?Works?of?Thomas?Chippendale,?p.??118.?? 78?One?count?has?Robert?Adam?executing?work?on?nearly?50?different?projects?around?England?at?the?time.?? Many?were?some?of?the?most?important?examples?of?classically?inspired?architecture?in?England?and?the? world.??These?include?Harewood?House,?Kedleston?Hall,?Kenwood?House,?Luton?Hoo,?Newby?Hall,?Nostell? priory,?Osterly?Park?and?Syon?House.??In?addition,?Adam?served?as?Architect?of?the?King?s?Works?from?1761?? 1769?(along?side?of?William?Chambers).???His?designs?inspired?both?architects?and?furniture?makers?as?many? following?this?period?produced?design?books?that?were?based?solely?on?classical?themes?(e.g.?Sheraton?and? Hepplewhite.)?? 79?Harris,?J.,?1966,?Early?Neo?Classical?Furniture,?pp.?1???6.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?149? Classical?style80?but?it?was?not?a?defining?influence.??It?must?be?recognized?that?it?was? Madame?de?Pompadour?who?provided?one?of?the?first?indications?of??official??interest?in?the? idea?of?Neo?Classical?design,?however?there?were?many?more?steps?that?were?to?be?taken? before?it?was?fully?expressed?in?French?design.??Others?suggest?that?it?was?inspired? specifically?by?the?discovery?of?the?ruins?of?Herculaneum?in?1738?and?of?Pompeii?10?years? later?and?the?re?discovery?of?the?Doric?Temples?of?Paestum?in?1745.???At?the?same?time,? there?had?been?a?build?up?of?negative?reactions?to?Rococo?in?both?England?and?France.? Thus,?Rococo?had?reached?its?peak?and?was?in?its?decline?as?the??fashionable??form?of? design.??Throughout?this?process?fashion?leaders?were?moving?back?and?forth?between?the? two?countries?exchanging?ideas?and?goods?with?each?other.??All?of?these?factors?probably? contributed?to?the?adoption?of?the?Neo?Classical?style?in?both?England?and?France.?? ? In?both?the?earliest?official?interest,?in?having?the?earliest?infrastructure?to?study?Classical? approaches,?and?in?the?earliest?expressions?of?Neo?Classical?designs,?France?had?the? advantage?over?England.??However,?it?was?England?that?embraced?it?the?fastest?and?with?the? greatest?vigour.??This?can?be?traced?primarily?to?the?active?promotion?of?the?new?design? elements?by?the?architects???particular?that?of?Robert?Adam.??The?other?factor?that?has?not? been?strongly?mentioned?is?that?this?was?the?first?time?that?England?believed?that?it?was? developing?this?style?and?not?just?copying?the?French?designers.?? ? It?cannot?be?forgotten?that?the?classical?styles?had?been?prevalent?in?both?countries?a? number?of?times?before?the?late?C18th. ?Like?fashion?in?general,?as?discussed?in?the?prior? chapter,?the?Neo?Classical?movement?was?yet?another?wave?of?the?classical?designs?that? were?being?taken?from?the?Greek?and?Roman?cultures.?Thus,?the??Neo?Classical???style?was? another?step?in?the?learning?process???taking?one?to?the?next?classical?interpretation.? ? 80?C.?Gilbert?agrees?with?S.?Eriksen?when?he?concludes?that?while?this?academy?did?impact?the?start?of?the?Neo? Classical?movement?in?architecture,?it?was?not?the?soul?or?even?THE?major?factor?driving?its?becoming?the?next? fashion?in?architectural?design.?See,?for?example,?Gilbert,?C.,?The?Life?and?Works?of?Thomas?Chippendale,?p.? 118.?? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?III???Neo?Classical?Fashion??? ?Page?150? As?stated?in?the?beginning?of?this?chapter,?in?regards?the?process?of?taking?architectural? designs?and?transferring?it?to?furniture?appears?to?have?been?driven?primarily?by?architects? as?it?was?assumed?at?the?start?of?this?research.??However,?it?was?not?nearly?as?strong?as?it? was?though?in?England.??And?while?the?connection?between?the?architects?and?the?furniture? designs?strengthened?during?this?revival?of?the?ancient?designs?it?was?still?fairly?weak?in? England.???While?it?was?the?architects?who?brought?the?ideas?back?from?their?Grand?Tours? and?their?studies?in?Italy?and?Greece?and?it?was?the?architects?who?first?published?these? ideas?and?to?express?them?in?concrete?objects?(both?buildings?and?furniture).??In?both? countries?the?furniture?makers?followed?with?their?own?creations?that?borrowed?from?the? architect?s?classical?design?elements.??In?England,?the?furniture?makers?also?began?to? produce?their?own?books?that?would?include?the?Neo?Classical?ideas?to?potential?buyers?of? their?furniture.???