Chapter?Two? On?Becoming?Fashionable?in?18th? Century?England?and?France? ? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE?IN?ENGLAND?AND?FRANCE? DURING?THE?AGE?OF?ELEGANCE? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions????????????? Page?? 45? ON?the?Cover:?? ? ? Portrait?by?Sir?Joshua?Reynolds,?1775?6,?Georgiana,?Duchess?of?Devonshire,?Oil?on? canvas,?currently?at?the?Henry?E.?Huntington?Art?Gallery,?San?Marino,?CA,?USA.??Taken? from?website:?http://www.abcgallery.com/R/reynolds/reynolds135.html?accessed?on? 02/2010.? ? Portrait?by?Elisabeth?Vig?e?Le?Brun,?1778,?Marie?Antoinette,?Oil?on?canvas,?currently?at? the?Kunsthistorisches?Museum,?Vienna,?taken?from?website:? http://www.ladyreading.net/marieantoinette/det2?en.htmlaccessed?on?02/2010.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions????????????? Page?? 46? II.???ON?BECOMING?FASHIONABLE?IN?18TH?CENTURY?ENGLAND?AND? FRANCE? A. Introduction? This?chapter?starts?with?an?exploration?of?the?different?theories?that?relate?to?fashion?in? order?to?identify?the?relevant?characteristics?that?define?what?fashion?is?and?how?it? operates.?Through?the?next?sections,?these?ideas?will?be?applied?first?to?fashion?in?general? during?late?C18th?England?and?France,?then?to?the?creation?of?fashionable?furniture.??Part?of? this?will?be?to?put?forth?some?viewpoints?concerning?the?relevancy?of?the?ideas?of?fashion?to? furniture.?This?chapter?will?end?with?the?discussion?of?a?major?change?in?people?s?behaviour,? which?is?reflected?in?the?furniture?that?was?being?produced?during?this?period.?? B. What?Makes?a?Fashion??? Fashion?is?a?term?that?is?clearly?important?to?this?thesis?and?therefore?this?topic?requires? some?discussion.?To?begin?this?discussion,?this?section?(B.?What?Makes?a?Fashion?)?will?first? broadly?define??fashion??by?looking?at?some?of?the?different?models?describing?fashion,?so,?in? a?the?following?section,?the?ideas?can?more?specifically?be?applied?first?to?the?C18th,?then,?in? the?next?chapters?(Chapters?III,?p.?118?&?IV,?p.153)?,?specifically?apply?them?to?luxury? furniture?in?the?late?C18th.???This?process?is?needed?because?historically?most?discussions? concerning?fashion?have?been?centred?upon?clothing?and?personal?adornment.??? ? In?defining?the?different?models,?this?section?sets?out?to??define??fashion,?identify?the?key? terms?and?concepts?that?best?describe?the?processes?involved?in?fashion,?and?then?to? identify?the?potential?drivers?of?fashion?and?to?apply?these?models?to?the?late?C18th?In?other? words?to?answer?the?question???What?attributes?do??fashionable??items?exhibit???? ? This?prefaces?a?later?discussion?comparing?England?and?France?demonstrating?the? interaction?between?them?and?outlining?the?different?ways?in?which?various?stimuli?resulted? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions????????????? Page?? 47? in?a?new?fashion?in?the?design?of?furniture.?Furthermore,?it?will?argue?that?one?new?fashion? in?architectural?design,?above?all?others???the?Neo?Classical?style,?played?an?integral?part?in? the?changes?that?were?occurring?across?the?varied?cultures?that?comprised?C18th?society?in? these?two?countries.?? ? The?late?C18th?represented?one?of?those?few?times?in?history?when?European?culture?was? characterized?by?torrent?of?ideas?and?new?approaches.??New?ideas?concerning?politics,? business/economics,?religion?and,?of?course,?the?arts?(including?architecture?and?furniture? design)?were?being?put?forth?to?and?perhaps?emerging?from?the?growing?upper?and?middle? classes.??It?could?be?said?for?example?that?this?was?a?period?of?time?when?it?became? ?fashionable??to?question?the?established?order?of?things?and?to?explore?new?approaches?to? addressing?problems.?In?part?this?is?why?such?phrases?as?the??Age?of?Reason??or?the??Age?of? Enlightenment??are?frequently?used?to?describe?this?period.??As?part?of?this?questioning?and? exploration,?it?was?also?during?this?time?that?the?ideas?about?the??ancient??civilizations?were? being?imported?to?both?England?and?France.1?In?many?ways?the?act?of?looking?to?these? ancient?civilizations?for?inspiration?was?part?of?this?questioning.??In?this?section,?the?process? for?developing?these?new?ideas?and?how?they?resulted?in?a?different?approach?to?the?design? of?buildings?and?furniture?will?be?examined.??? ? So,?how?do?we?define?fashion???It?is?quite?amazing?how?different?people?define?fashion.? Much?would?seem?to?depend?upon?individual?perspectives.??According?to?G.?Sproles:??? ? ?Fashion?is?the?prevailing?style?at?any?given?time??(From?Nystrom,?1928)? ? ?Fashion?is?the?pursuit?of?novelty?for?its?own?sake??(From?Robinson,?1958)? ? ?Fashion?is?a?process?of?social?contagion?by?which?a?new?style?or?product?is?adopted?by?the?consumer? after?commercial?introduction??(From?King,?1964)? 1?As?recognized?by?a?number?of?authors?it?was?also?a?time?when?there?were?new?materials?being?introduced?to? both?England?and?France?through?their?colonies?in?the?New?World?and?through?their?exploration?of?Africa?and? the?Far?East.??This?will?be?discussed?later?(See?p.?286).? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions????????????? Page?? 48? ? ?Fashion?is?a?way?of?behaving?that?is?temporarily?adopted?by?a?discernible?proportion?of?members?of?a? social?group?because?that?chosen?behaviour?is?perceived?to?be?socially?appropriate?for?the?time?and? situation??? 2?? ? ?Regardless?any?of?these?definitions,?when?we?hear?the?word??fashion?,?one?generally?thinks? of?clothing?or?types?of?personal?adornment???although?some?might?think?of?art?and?music?as? part?of??fashion??and?a?still?smaller?number?think?that?fashion?applies?to?every?area?involving? human?social?activities.??A?review?of?the?literature?confirms?this?hierarchy?as?most?literature? discusses?fashion?in?the?context?of?personal?adornment,?while?a?few?authors?go?to?the?other? extreme?and?apply?it?to?all?areas.?? ? Was?fashion?always?with?us,?or?is?this?a?sign?of?modernity????Opinions?vary?on?this?question? also,?to?those?who?subscribe?to?the?notion?that?fashion?is?a?part?of?all?human?endeavours;? fashion?has?always?been?with?us?and?always?will?always?be?part?of?our?social?dynamic.?? However,?others?argue?that?fashion,?at?least?in?terms?of?its?more?contemporary?usage,?did? not?start?until?Western?Civilisation?itself?started?to?become?more?sophisticated.??Such? authors?point?to?changes?that?started?to?occur?in?the?C14th,?including,?increased?growth?in? cities,?increase?trade?between?cities?and?countries?and?areas?of?the?world,?greater? sophistication?of?the?ruling?elite?classes,?and?the?increase?in?the?number?of?people?that? were?able?to?afford?luxury?items.3??? ? 2?G.?Sproles,?Behavioural?Science?Theories?of?Fashion.??In?M.?Solomon?(ed.),?The?Psychology?of?Fashion,? Lexington?Books,?Lexington,?MA,?USA,?1985,?p.?55.??G.?Sproles?was?quoting:?? ? P.?Nystrom,?Economics?of?Fashion,?Ronald?Press,?New?York,?1928.? ? D.?Robinson,?Fashion?Theory?and?Product?Design,?Harvard?Business?Review,?Vol?36,?Aug.?1958,?pp.?126? 138.? ? C.?King,?The?Innovator?in?the?Fashion?Adoption?Process,?in?Smith,?G.?(ed.),?Reflections?on?Progress?in? Marketing,?American?Marketing?Association,?Chicago,?1964,?pp.?324?339.? ? G.?Sproles,?Fashion:?Consumer?Behaviour?Toward?Dress,?Burgess,?Minneapolis,?USA,?1979.? 3See?for?example?E.?Wilson,?Adorned?in?Dreams:?Fashion?and?Modernity,?Rutgers?University?Press,?New?Jersey,? USA,?2003.?p.?17.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions????????????? Page?? 49? What?is?clear?is?that?there?are?many?different?ways?to?define?fashion?and?to?identify?the? underlying?processes.??For?example,?the?following?are?some?of?the?definitions?that?are? provided?for?the?word??fashion??in?the?Princeton?On?Line?Dictionary.4?? ? o How?something?is?done?or?how?it?happens.? o Characteristic?or?habitual?practice? o The?latest?and?most?admired?style?in?clothes?and?cosmetics?and?behavior.?? o Consumer?goods?(especially?clothing)?in?the?current?mode.? ? Once?again?it?is?demonstrated,?there?are?variations?of?how?to?define??fashion?.??In?some? cases??fashion??is?used?to?describe?how?one?does?something?or?a?behavioural?attribute??? thus,?it?refers?to?an?activity?(the?first?and?second?definition?provided?previously)5.?In?the? other?definitions?(the?third?and?fourth?definitions),??fashion??is?the?selection?or?ownership?of? items?that?define?a?particular?style.??They?also?suggest?temporal?bases?and?they?relate?to? what?is?liked?in?general?by?some?generally?undefined?group?(i.e.,??the?latest?and?most? admired?style??and??in?the?current?mode?).???In?general,?when?someone?discusses?fashion?in? casual?conversation,?the?term?relates?to?the?selection?or?the?possession?of?particular?items? especially?regarding?clothing?or?dressing?accessories?(the?third?definition).??? ? To?understand?more?clearly?of?what?fashion?is,?it?is?sometimes?helpful?to?understand?related? words?or?concepts.??For?example,?fashion,?it?could?be?said,?is?invariably?intertwined?with?the? concepts?of??taste??and??style.???Here,?we?see?that?taste?is?defined?as:?? ? 4?Princeton?On?Line?Dictionary:?http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=fashion,?accessed?01/10/08.? 5?Note:??According?to?M.?Barnard,?in?Fashion?as?Communication,?the?word?fashion?is?derived?from?the?Latin? word?Factio,?which??means?making?or?doing??(M.?Barnard,?Fashion?as?Communication,?Routledge,?London,? 1996,?p.?7.??? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions????????????? Page?? 50? o A?strong?liking.?? o Delicate?discrimination???especially?of?aesthetic?values.6? And?style?is?defined?as:?? ? o How?something?is?done?or?how?it?happens.? o A?way?of?expressing?something???in?language?or?art?or?music,?etc.?that?is? characteristic?of?a?particular?person?or?group?of?people?or?period.?? o A?particular?kind???as?to?appearance.?? o The?popular?taste?at?a?given?time.7?? ? So,?how?do?these?terms?differ???Fashion?can?be?described?as?a?function?of?taste.??If?one?is??in? fashion?,?one?could?be?said?to?exhibit?a?popular?taste.??However,?the?opposite?may?not?be? true,?if?you?have??taste??or?if?you?have?a?taste?for?a?particular?style,?you?may?or?may?not?be?in? fashion.??Changes?in?fashion?can?be?described?as??changes?in?the?taste?of?the?dominant? group?8.??Fashion?can?also?be?very?similar?to?style.??Both?fashion?and?style?relate?to?how? something?is?done?and/or?a?particular?kind?of?group?behaviour?(e.g.,??popular?taste?).?There? are?differences?however,?e.g.,?if?you?are?in?fashion,?you?have?probably?adopted?a?particular? style?(one?that?is?in?the?current?mode),?but,?as?with?taste,?if?you?exhibit?a?particular?style?it? does?not?necessarily?mean?that?you?are?in?fashion.??These?differences?may?be?found?when? exploring?the?nuances?that?define?each?of?these?terms.??Consider?how?the?issues?of?style? and?taste?are?discussed?in?Auslander?s?book???Taste?and?Power9.??To?quote?from?the? introduction?to?Taste?and?Power10,?Auslander?defines??Taste?and?Style??the?following?way:?? ? 6?Source:??Princeton?on?line?dictionary:?http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=taste,?accessed? 01/10/08????Note:??only?the?relevant?definitions?are?presented?here.? 7?Source:??Princeton?on?line?dictionary:?http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=style,?accessed?01/10/08? Note:??only?the?relevant?definitions?are?presented?here.?? 8?M.?Barnard?(ed.)?Fashion?Theory,?Routledge,?Abingdon,?Oxon,?UK,?2007,?p.222.? 9?L.?Auslander,?Taste?and?Power:?Furnishing?Modern?France,?University?of?California?Press,?London,?1996,?? 10?L.?Auslander,?Taste?and?Power:?Furnishing?Modern?France,?p.?2,?? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions????????????? Page?? 51? ?Taste?has?been,?for?at?least?the?last?two?hundred?years,?a?term?laden?with?contradictions.??It?has?been? understood?to?be?innate?and?emotional?yet?capable?of?improvement?through?education:??individual? and?idiosyncratic?yet?absolute;?transcendent?of?time?and?space?yet?socially?constituted.??Style?in? contrast,?has?been?understood?to?be?historical?and?specific,?resulting?from?either?collective?effort?or? individual?genius.?? ? While?fashion?implies?some?kind?of??compulsion?from?a?group?11?(even?though?it?is?thought? to?be?made?up?of?individual?discussions)?taste?by?itself?suggests?only?an?individual?s? attribute.???Style,?on?the?other?hand,?suggests?a?way?of?doing?something?regardless?of?any? outside?guiding?principle?(e.g.,?It?is?in?a?particular?style.,?It?is?consistent?with?her?style.,?It?is?in? the?Art?Deco?style.),?while?fashion?could?be?the?guiding?principle?(The?statement??He?follows? the?latest?fashion??could?be?restated?as??His?style?is?in?the?latest?fashion.?).??Consider?the? times?when?the?works?of?a?particular?designer?become?popular?for?a?period?of?time,?then? falls?out?of?favour.??The??style??is?still?associated?with?that?designer?and?may?still?be?produced? by?that?designer?however?while?originally?it?is?fashionable?(i.e.,?a?group?reacts?by?buying?and? wearing?the?items.),?while?later?the?style?may?go?out?of?fashion?(i.e.,?the?group?no?longer? reacts?positively?toward?the?designer?s?style.)??Thus,?fashion?is?different?from?style?in?that? fashion?relates?to?an?individual?s?reaction?relative?to?a?group?(either?the?member?of?the? group?emulates?a?particular?behaviour?or?it?stimulates?others?to?copy?their?own?behaviour? or?mode?of?adornment),?and?not?of?the?individual?in?isolation.??It?could?be?said?that?a?fashion? could?be?the?response?to?a?style?that?has?been?advanced?by?an?individual.??The?bottom?line? is?that?fashion?is?a?social,?interactive?process?while?taste?and?style?is?more?likely?to?related? to?individual?behaviour?or?proscribed?phenomenon.??As?a?consequence,?fashion?either? relates?to?a?mode?of?behaviour?(usually?dressing?or?adorning?oneself)?or?the?ownership?of? particular?items?(usually?clothing),?which,?while?made?up?of?individual?decisions?never?the? less?represents?group?behaviour.??Furthermore,?this?group?behaviour?is?lead?by?some? elements?(leaders,?stimulators)?and?is?followed?by?other?elements?of?the?group?or?of?other? 11?E.?Sapir,?in?his?article?Fashion?in?M.?Barnard,?(ed.),?Fashion?Theory:??A?Reader,?Routledge,?London,?2007,? p.38.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions????????????? Page?? 52? groups?(emulators,?followers,?adaptors).???Style?might?be?best?said?to?represent?an?idea?that? either?has?a?historical?or?other?basis?but?does?not?necessarily?relate?to?group?behaviour.?? ? Taste?is?also?perceived?to?be?an?individual?concept?or?a?concept?related?to?some?higher? standard?as?indicated?by?the?phrase??good?taste?.??Taste?or?bon?go?t?as?Auslander?suggests,? is?learnable?(one?can?learn?or?develop?good?taste.),?but?the?standard?of?good?taste?is? perceived?to?be?relatively?constant.??Fashion,?on?the?other?hand,?is?characterized?by?change? ??almost?by?definition.???? ? In?addition?to?differentiating?fashion?from?taste?on?this?factor,?this?definition?also? differentiates?fashion?from?style.??Fashion?changes?over?time,?while?style,?to?a?lesser?degree,? taste?seldom?change.??H.?Blumer,?a?leading?theorist,?defines?fashion?as?a?process?of?change,? when?he?argues?fashion?is?a?? ? ??continuing?pattern?of?change?in?which?certain?social?forms?enjoy?temporary?acceptance?and? respectability?only?to?be?replaced?by?others?more?abreast?of?the?times.??12?? ? Or?as?Agnes?Brooks?Young?describes?it:???Fashion?is?evolution?without?destination.?13?? Relating?this?idea?to?furniture,?C.?Sargentson?adopts?this?view?when?she?suggests?a?strong? force?in?the?luxury?markets?is?the?newness?or?nouveaut??of?an?object?suggesting?that? change?and?switching?to?the?next?new?thing?is?an?important?characteristic?especially? sensitive?to?this?idea?were?the?shoppers?of?luxury?goods.14? ? Now?let?us?consider?two?other?similar?words?to?help?to?understand?what?fashion?is?and?is? not:??these?two?words?are??fads??and??customs?.??Like?fashion,?fads?are?also?related?to? 12?H.?Blumer,?Fashion,?in?D.?Sills?(eds.),?International?Encyclopaedia?of?the?Social?Sciences,?Vol.?5,?MacMillan,? New?York,?1968,?pp.?341???345.??? 13?A.?B.?Young,?Recurring?Cycles?of?Fashion,?1760?1937,?New?York?and?London,?Harper?&?Bros.,?1937,?p.?5.? 14?C.?Sargentson,?Merchants?and?Luxury?Markets,?Victoria?and?Albert?Museum,?London,?1996,?p.?144.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions????????????? Page?? 53? change15.??However?it?is?generally?differentiated?from?a?fashion?in?that?a?fad?is?usually? thought?of?as?having?a?shorter?duration?and?are?more?likely?to?be?a?temporary?aberration.?? Thus?fashion?has?two?more?characteristics;?it?lasts?for?a?period?of?time?that?is?longer?than?a? fad?and?it?is?related?to?previous?events???it?has?a?history.??Another?way?of?putting?this?last? statement?is?to?say?that?a?current?fashion?is?usually?either?a?variation?of?a?previous?fashion? or?it?is?an?idea?that?was?stimulated?by?prior?fashions.???H.?Blumer?suggests?this?when?he? argues:?? ? ?The?most?noticeable?difference?(from?fashion)?is?that?fads?have?no?line?of?historical?continuity:??each? springs?up?independent?of?a?predecessor?and?gives?rise?to?no?successor.??16? ? At?the?other?extreme?are?customs?that?are?very?long?lasting?and?relatively?stable17? phenomenon.???Whereas?fashions?are?part?of?history?(they?both?use?prior?fashions?and?they? become?the?building?blocks?for?future?fashions),?customs?are?more?likely?to?be?historical? themselves.??Fashions?can,?in?certain?cases,?supersede?a?custom,?and?either?become?a?new? custom?or?fades?away?and?allows?the?original?custom?to?resume.??Consequently,?fashion?is? neither?an?extremely?short?lived?phenomena?nor?is?it?something?that?lasts?an?extremely? long?time?and?fashion?is?consistent?with?the?idea?of?a?historical?trend.????? ? In?conclusion,?these?are?some?of?the?more?prominent?features?of?fashion:??? ???????It?is....? o A?group?behaviour?that?is?made?up?of?individual?decisions???the?group?decides?what? is?fashionable?or?not,?but?it?is?individuals?who?select?the?items?or?process.?? o Temporally?based???that?is?it?changes?over?time.??While?it?changes?faster?than? customs?it?is?slower?to?change?than?fads.? 15?The?Princeton?dictionary?defines?a?fad?as?simply??an?interest?followed?with?exaggerated?zeal??without? mention?to?its?limited?time?frame?(See?http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=fad).??However,?most? other?dictionaries?mention?this.??? 16?H.?Blumer,?Fashion,?in?D.?Sills,?(eds.),?International?Encyclopaedia?of?the?Social?Sciences,?p.?344.? 17?The?Princeton?dictionary?defines?customs?as?an?accepted,?habitual?or?a?specific?practice?of?long?standing.?? http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=customs&sub=Search+WordNet&o2=&o0=1&o7=&o5=&o1=1& o6=&o4=&o3=&h=0,?accessed?02/10/08.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions????????????? Page?? 54? o Historically?based.??Current?fashions,?with?few?exceptions,?are?developed?from?prior? fashions.??Although?this?may?not?always?be?true,?in?general?this?means?that?there?are? cycles?in?fashion,?about?which?many?authors?have?written.18? ? The?next?question?concerns?whether?or?not?the?concept?of?fashion?can?apply?to?furniture??? the?immediate?subject?of?this?thesis.??As?stated?before?fashion?is?most?typically?associated? with?dress?or?personal?adornment.??Perhaps?as?a?result?of?this?perspective,?it?is?the?case?that? most?articles?and?most?research?relating?to?the?topic?of??fashion??concerns?the?topic?of? clothing?fashion?(Again,?this?connects?to?the?third?definition?presented?previously???the? latest?and?most?admired?style?in?clothes?and?cosmetics?and?behaviour)?even?though?a?few? papers?relate?fashion?to?the?arts?(music?and?visual?arts),?social?habits?(popular?activities,? popular?behaviours?or?beliefs).??Even?fewer?writings?relate?fashion?to?other?areas?such?as? politics,?business?or?even?medicine?and?science.??In?Fashion:??From?Class?Differentiation?to? Collective?Selection,?H.?Blumer19?considers??fashion??to?be?strongly?related?to?all?areas?of? human?endeavours.??? ? ?While?occasional?references?may?be?made?to?its?(fashion?s)?play?in?other?areas,?such?casual? references?do?not?give?a?proper?picture?of?the?extent?of?its?operation.??Yet,?to?a?discerning?eye?fashion? is?readily?seen?to?operate?in?many?diverse?areas?of?human?group?life,?especially?so?in?modern?times.???It? is?easily?observable?in?the?realm?of?the?pure?and?applied?arts,?such?as?painting,?sculpture,?music,? drama,?architecture,?dancing,?and?household?decoration.??There?is?plenty?of?evidence?to?show?its?play? in?the?field?of?medicine.??Many?of?us?are?familiar?with?its?operation?in?fields?of?industry,?especially?that? of?business?management.?20??? ? This?broader?definition?is?the?one?that?is?embraced?by?this?thesis?and?consequently?furniture? represents?a?field?of?endeavour?that?does?not?live?outside?the?remit?of?fashion.??? 18?See?for?example;??? ?????A.?B.?Young,?Recurring?Cycles?of?Fashion,?1760?1937.? ?????G.?Sproles,?Analyzing?Fashion?Life?Cycles:?Principals?&?Perspectives,?Journal?of?Marketing,?Vol?45,?No?4,?1981?? ?????????pp.?116?124.? 19?H.?Blumer,?Fashion:??From?Class?Differentiation?to?Collective?Selection,?The?Sociological?Quarterly,?Vol?49,?? ????????Issue?4,?Fall?2008,?pp.?275???291.? 20?H.?Blumer,?Fashion:??From?Class?Differentiation?to?Collective?Selection,?pp.275.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions????????????? Page?? 55? ? Furthermore,?while?presenting?a?theory?of?the?development?of?fashions?as?an?imperfect? system?of?transferring?information?from?one?person?to?another?(formulating?what?are?called? ?Informational?Cascades?)?S.?Bikhehandani,?D.?Hirshleifer,?and?I.?Welch.?also?suggest?how? the?creation?of?fads?and?fashions?can?occur?in?many?varied?categories?and?is?not?limited?to? clothing?and?personal?ornamentation21.??Some?of?these?examples?also?include?medicine?and? scientific?research22,?politics?and?in?business.??In?the?later?case,?they?point?out?the?existence? of??waves??in?the?markets.??Such?as?the??conglomerate?merger?wave?of?the?1960s,?its? reversal?through?restructuring?and?hostile?takeovers?in?the?1980s?23.24??? ? H.?Blumer?suggests?that?because?fashion?exists?in?all?areas?of?human?activity,?that?the?study? of?fashion?as?a?topic?is?indeed?important.?25?H.?Blumer?did?not?mean?to?imply?that?he? 21?S.?Bikhehandani,?D.?Hirshleifer?and?I.?Welch,?A?Theory?of?Fads,?Fashion,?Custom,?and?Cultural?Change?as? Informational?Cascades,?The?Journal?of?Political?Economy,?Vol.?100,?No?5,?(Oct.,?1992),?pp.?992?1026.?? 22?In?this?these?authors?reference?several??surgical?fads?and?epidemics?of?treatment?caused?illnesses?(e.g.,? ?iatroepidemics??such?as?tonsillectomy,?elective?hysterectomy,?internal?mammary?ligation?and?ileal?bypass.)?? R.?Taylor,?Medicine?out?of?control:??The?Anatomy?of?a?Malignant?Technology,?Melbourne:?Sun?Books,?1979?and? E.?Robin,?Matters?of?Life?and?Death:??Risks?vs?Benefits?of?Medical?Care,?New?York,?Freeman,?1984?were? referenced?in?S.?Bikhehandani,?D.?Hirshleifer,?and?I.?Welch,?A?Theory?of?Fads,?Fashion,?Custom,?and?Cultural? Change?as?Informational?Cascades,?p.?10?11.? 23?S.?Bikhehandani,?D.?Hirshleifer,?and?I.?Welch,?A?Theory?of?Fads,?Fashion,?Custom,?and?Cultural?Change?as? Informational?Cascades,?p.?10?12.? 24?From?personal?experience,?one?could?see?in?business,?certain?approaches?to?running?large?organisations?also? went?through?trends?or?fashions.??? ? At?one?time,?the?development?of?new?products?is?the?focus?of?businesses?in?general;?while?at?other?times,? many?major?businesses?will?focus?on?the?revitalization?of?their?old?businesses.??At?times,?organisations? concentrate?on?building?their?own?staff?in?order?to?have?complete?control?over?the?resources?and?at?other? times?their?emphasis?is?on?subcontracting?as?much?as?possible?in?order?to?save?on?overhead.??Certain?speakers? and?programs?would?become?popular?(For?example,?for?a?while?in?the?early?1980?s?the?One?Minute?Manager? 24?became?the??must?read??book?by?all?American?corporate?executives?and?its?author,?Kenneth?Blanchard,? became?the??must?have??speaker?at?sales?conferences.)??Later,?the?phrase??management?by?objectives??crept? into?the?business?lexicon?and?the?One?Minute?Manager?was?put?away?on?the?bookcase?to?gather?dust.?In?all?of? these?cases,?one?saw?that?the?industry?literature?(trade?journals)?would?actively?promote?and?discuss?the?then? relevant?approach?and?internally,?there?would?be?meetings?and?seminars?to?communicate?the?new?approach? to?a?company?s?employees.??The?change?from?one?philosophical?approach?to?human?resource?management? did?not?occur?because?research??proved??that?one?system?worked?better?than?the?other,?it?simply?occurred? because?one?became?more?fashionable?that?the?other.? 25?H.?Blumer?goes?so?far?as?to?suggest?that?fashion?has?become?one?of?the?central?mechanisms?for?creating? order?in?modern?society.??There?are?essentially?two?other?reasons?why?H.?Blumer?argues?that?fashion?should? be?a?serious?area?of?study.??The?first?reason?provided?for?this?conclusion?is?that?behaviours?related?to?fashion? can?have?profound?effects?on?the?subject?that?a?particular?fashion?is?concerned.??In?the?area?of?clothing,? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions????????????? Page?? 56? believed?that?if?fashion?was?limited?to?clothing?then?it?would?not?be?important,?but?that? other?people?would?perceive?it?to?be?less?important?or?frivolous?unless?fashion?did?apply?to? other?areas.??This?point?was?supported?by?several?authors?including?G.?Lipovetsky26,?E.? Wilson27,?and?M.?Barnard?in?Fashion?Theory:?A?Reader28.??To?quote,?Lipovetsky:?? ? ?The?topic?of?fashion?arouses?critical?reflexes?even?before?it?is?examined?objectively;?critics?invoke?it? chiefly?in?order?to?castigate?it??29? ? R.?Konig?s?A?La?Mode:??On?the?Psychology?of?Fashion30?reinforces?this?point?by?arguing?that? fashion?is??usually?perceived?as?irrational??and?that?others?tend?to?deny?its?importance,?but? because?of?its?application?to?all?areas?of?human?activity,?it?is?an?extremely?important?topic?of? study.??? ? If?it?is?accepted?that?fashion?does?extend?beyond?clothing,?we?now?need?to?specifically?look? at?applying?the?term?fashion?to?furniture.??To?apply?the?theories?of?fashion?to?furniture,?one? possible?first?step?might?be?to?see?how?many?characteristics?it?shares?with?clothing?since? that?is?the?singular?product?more?commonly?discussed?in?the?literature?about?fashion.??At? first?glance?this?seems?to?suggest?that?we?are?limiting?our?discussion?to?the?idea?that? furniture?can?only?be?described?as?an?object?or,?in?their?words,?an?example?of???consumer? goods??to?own.??But?it?can?be?argued?that?in?the?case?of?furniture?(as?with?clothing)?that? behavioural?definition?also?applies.?A?new?style?of?writing?desk,?for?example,?may?also? define?how?one?uses?that?desk.??Owning?a?particular?desk?may?equally?define?the?style?or? way?that?you?seem?to?conduct?yourself,?it?may?also?serve?to?define?you?by?the?fact?of? ownership?of?the?new?item.? millions,?if?not?billions,?of?pounds?are?spent?every?year?by?industry?hopping?to?guess?the?current?fashions? correctly.??The?second?reason?is,?contrary?to?popular?belief,?fashion?related?behaviour?is?neither??aberrant??nor? ?irrational??(H.?Blumer,?Fashion:??From?Class?Differentiation?to?Collective?Selection?p.276).?Instead?he?suggests? that?on?an?individual?level?this?behaviour?is?thoughtful?and?directed,?it?is?only?on?the?group?level?that?it? appears?irrational.?? 26?G.?Lipovetsky,?The?Empire?of?Fashion:??Introduction,?in?M.?Barnard,?Fashion?Theory:??A?Reader,?p.?25.? 27?E.?Wilson,?Explaining?It?Away?in?M.?Barnard,?M.,?Fashion?Theory:?A?Reader,?pp.?15?24.? 28?M.?Barnard,?Fashion?Theory:??A?Reader.? 29?G.?Lipovetsky,?The?Empire?of?Fashion:??Introduction,?in?Barnard,?M.,?Fashion?Theory:??A?Reader,?p.?25.? 30?R.?Konig,?A?La?Mode:??On?the?Psychology?of?Fashion,?The?Seaburg?Press,?New?York,?1973.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions????????????? Page?? 57? Figure?2?1:?Boucher's?1756?portrait?of?Madame?de? Pompadour?showing?how?furniture?is?used,?like? clothing,?to?enhance?the?image?of?the?person?in?the? picture.?? ? Another?aspect?of?fashion?is?what?it?communicates?about?its?participant.??Barnard,?for? example,?argues?that?our?clothing?communicates?an?image?or?a?statement?about?us.??Pieces? of?furniture?are?similar?to?clothing?in?that?for?they?too?communicate?an?image.??If?you?look? at?portraits?from?this?period,?the?furniture?and?the?other?items?that?comprise?the?interior? items?in?the?paintings?are?just?as?important?in?defining?who?they?are?as?is?the?clothing?that? they?are?wearing.??However,?it?is?clear?that?the?most?applicable?definition?to?this?particular? thesis?is?that?which?relates?to?the?third?and?fourth?definition?given?by?Princeton?as?we?are? dealing?with?the?popularity?of?objects? (furniture)?as?a?way?of?expressing?one?s?own? ideas?or?personality.31??? ? In?the?portrait?shown?in?Figure?2?1,?Madame? de?Pompadour?is?shown?in?her?room?with? several?decorations?designed?to? communicate?very?specific?ideas?to?the? viewers.??The?inclusion?of?a?writing?desk,?a? bookcase?filled?with?books,?writing? implements?ready?for?use,?as?well?as?a?book? in?her?hand?are?used?to?enhance?the? reputation?of?Madame?de?Pompadour?by? demonstrating?her?achievements?(reading? and?writing)?as?well?as?her?importance.?? What?is?being?signalled?here?is?that?she? participates?in?these?important?and??fashionable??activities.???Taking?the?writing?table?for? 31?Madame?de?Pompadour?by?Fran?ois?Boucher?(1703?1770)?Painted?in?1756?currently?at?the?Alte?Pinothek?in? Munich?Germany.?Taken?from?website:? http://www.pinakothek.de/_scripts/bild_big.php?which=12119_11735&title=Bildnis?der?Marquise?de? Pompadour,?accessed?13/10/08.? In?this?portrait?both?a?writing?desk?and?a?bookcase?are?used?to?enhance?the?reputation?of?Madame?de? Pompadour?by?demonstrating?her?activities?(reading?and?writing).??In?addition?to?demonstrating?that?she? participates?in?these??fashionable??activities.?? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions????????????? Page?? 58? example,?the?idea?for?a?writing?table?came?from?the?fashionable?activity?of?writing?that?was? to?emerge?in?the?C18th?and?in?turn,?this?item?became?a?part?of?the?behaviour?of?writing32.?? The?exposed?pen?and?paper?on?the?writing?table?also?reinforce?these?ideas.??Additionally,? the?bookcase?behind?her?further?suggests?her?participation?in?the?emergence?of?another? popular?activities???that?of?reading?the?latest?literature.33?34??Again,?having?an?open?book?in? her?lap?underlines?this?idea.??This?picture?also?suggests?that?she?is?aware?of?and?takes?part?in? the?then?current?dominated?fashion?in?design?known?as?Rococo.? ? While?the?paintings?serve?to?communicate?specific?ideas?about?the?person?in?the?painting,? the?ownership?of?the?actual?furniture?also?can?serve?to?communicate?a?message.??Thus? when?a?courtesan?wanted?to?impress?people?and?she?wanted?to?have?a?safe?place?to?keep? business?private?she?obtained?a?secr?taire???abattant.35??This?could?also?take?the?form?of?the? 32?D.?Goodman,?The?Secr?taire?and?the?Integration?of?Eighteenth?Century?Self?in?D.?Goodman?and?K.?Norberg? (eds),?Furnishing?the?Eighteenth?Century:?What?Furniture?Can?Tell?us?about?the?European?and?American?Past,? Routledge,?London,?2007,?pp.?183?201.? 33?It?has?been?suggested?that?reading?books?and?writing?letters?was?the???internet??revolution?of?the?C18th.?? While?the?printing?press?had?been?invented?several?hundred?years?before,?it?was?only?during?this?period?that? reading?books?was?becoming?a?widespread?pastime?for?the?higher?classes?of?society.??? 34?In?his?book,?The?History?of?Reading,?Fischer?speaks?of?the?control?that?the?church?had?on?reading?during?the? medieval?times?stating?that?the?typical?transformation?of?knowledge?progressed?as?illustrated?below:?? ? ?author??Commentator??bishop?teacher?pupil??(p.?205).? ?? Thus,?the?church?interjected?itself?in?the?process?of?gathering?information?and?communicating?it?to?the?general? public.???He?goes?on?to?explain?that?this?hold?on?the?control?of?information?would?only?slowly?loosen?only?after? several?hundred?years.?See:?S.?Fischer,?A?History?of?Reading,?Reaktion?Books,?London,?2004.??Even?earlier,?in? Roman?times,?reading?and?writing?were?activities?of?scribes?and?underlings?and?not?those?of?the?ruling?classes.? ? R.?Wittman?mentions?this?in?regards?to?architecture,?which?he?says?that?architectural?publications?were?limited? to?a?very?small?group?of?elite?educated?and?wealthy?segment?of?the?French?population?until?the?mid?1740?s? when?the?volume?of?architectural?publications?began?to??expand?dramatically??through?the?periodic?press.? Concurrently?with?this?shift?was?a?shift?in?the?building?in?Paris.??It?was?also?during?this?time?that?the? government?was?not?spending?much?on?the?buildings?in?Paris,?but?this?void?was?being?filled?by?what?R.? Wittman?calls?the??nouveau?riche?financiers?.??These?observations?both?support?the?idea?that?intellectual? activities?were?expanding?and?that?the?consumption?of?luxury?items?was?also?expanding?to?a?new?segment?of? the?French?population.??See?R.?Wittman,?The?Hut?and?the?Altar:?Architectural?Origins?and?the?Public?Sphere?in? Eighteenth?Century?France,?Studies?in?Eighteenth?Century?Culture,?Vol?36,?2007,?p.?244.? 35?K.?Norberg,?Goddess?of?Taste:?The?Courtesans?and?their?Furniture?in?Late?Eighteenth?Century?Paris,?in?D.? Goodman?and?K.?Norberg?(eds),?Furnishing?the?Eighteenth?Century:?What?Furniture?Can?Tell?us?about?the? European?and?American?Past,?p.?97?114.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions????????????? Page?? 59? decoration?that?was?used?on?the?furniture.??Many?of?the?pieces?for?Louis?XVI?had?symbols?on? them?demonstrating?specific?areas?such?as?an?interest?in?the?arts,?literature?or?science.?? ? It?is?easy?to?find?other?examples?of?English?or?French?aristocrats?being?associated?with? symbols?of?intellectual?activities?such?as?reading?and?writing?through?the?use?of?portrait? paintings.??There?are?even?pictures?of?Marie?Antoinette?being?surrounded?by?similar? symbols.36?? ? In?the?engraving?of?a?social?gathering??(See?Figure?2?2)?in?France?by?Francois?Nicolas? Barthelemy?Dequevauviller?entitled?L?Assembl??au?Salon?(1789),?he?clearly?demonstrates? how?furniture?had?become?an?integral?to?fashionable?and?festive?activities.??This?picture?also? demonstrates?what?the?fashion?was?in?furniture?at?that?time.??As?discussed?in?Furniture,? Sociability,?and?the?Work?of?Leisure?in?Eighteenth?Century?France,?Hellman?describes?how? 36?One?example?is?the?oil?on?canvas?painting?of?Marie?Antoinette?by?Jacques?Fabian?Gautier?Dagoty?(1717? 1785),?completed?in?1775?(currently?at?Versailles).???In?this?painting,?Marie?Antoinette,?dressed?in?the?height?of? Figure?2?2:??L'Assemblee?au?Salon?by?Francois?Nicolas?Barthelemy?Dequevauviller?(1745?1807)?drawn?in? 1783.??Showing?how?furniture?was?essential?in?a?social?setting.?? ? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions????????????? Page?? 60? the?furniture?defines?four?areas?for?fashionable?entertainment.??? ? ?The?arrangement?of?two?games?tables?and?a?number?of?chairs?establishes?four?distinct?zones?of? activity,?one?for?individual?reading?near?a?window,?two?for?games?toward?the?centre?of?the?space?and? one?for?conversation?by?the?fireplace?37? ? It?is?interesting?to?note?how?the?elite?of?this?period?in?both?England?and?France?would? design?homes?with?two?sets?of?furnished?apartments.??One?set?was?for?their?own?personal/? private?use?while?the?other?was?for?public?display,?to?demonstrate?to?others?their?refined? tastes?and?their?wealth38.??A?primary?example?of?this?kind?of?division?into?public?and?private? spheres?could?be?seen?Versailles?where?both?the?King?and?Queen?had?their?own?very? extensive?private?apartments?where?they?could?escape?the?formalities?and?public?displays? which?took?place?in?the?public?areas.39??In?England?many?of?the?aristocratic?families?also? provided?for?public?and?private?areas.??For?example,?both?Kedleston?(built?by?Sir?Nathaniel? Curzon?(1726?1804)),?and?Holkham?(built?by?Thomas?Coke?(1697?1759),?the?first?Earl?of? Leicester)?were?known?to?have?separate?private?and?public?sections.??When?this?was?not? possible,?the?estate?would?build?a??state??room?that?was?to?be?the?display?room?to?impress? important?guests.40??The?need?to?communicate?success?and?authority?to?the?guests?and?to? the?general?public?was?so?important?that?they?went?to?the?expense?of?creating?these?special? areas?that?were?only?used?when?the?guests?were?visiting.??Baker?discusses?this?topic?as?it? relates?to?the?uses?of?statues?inside?of?many?homes?during?the?late?C18th.?Because?statues? fashion,?is?surrounded?by?a?globe,?an?open?book?one?closed?book.?? 37?M.?Hellman,?Furniture,?Sociability,?and?the?Work?of?Leisure?in?Eighteenth?Century?France,?Eighteenth? Century?Studies,?32.4,?1999,?p.?446.? 38?There?was?actually?a?third?category?of?furniture?purchased?by?these?elite?groups?that?was?the?furniture?that? was?intended?for?the?use?of?their?assistants?or?servants.???Both?Chippendale?and?Riesener?were?known?to? produce?such?pieces?of?furniture.??At?the?risk?of?over?generalizing,?these?pieces?of?furniture?tended?to?be?the? same?high?quality,?but?with?fewer?decorative?elements?such?as?extensive?ormolu,?or?marquetry?designs.?? 39?According?to?the?curator?at?Versailles,?Louis?XVI?would?wake?up?early?in?his?private?apartment?so?he?could? move?to?the?public?bedroom.??From?there?he?would?wake?up?again,?get?bathed?and?dressed?in?front?of?his? public.?At?night?he?would?pretend?to?go?to?bed?before?an?audience,?then?once?they?left?he?would?journey?to? his?private,?more?comfortable?bed.?Demonstrating?how?important?it?was?for?them?to?present?themselves?in? the?most?opulent?setting?of?the?public?bedroom.?(Source:??Interview?with?the?D.?Rault?head?of?housekeeping?at? Versailles,?19?February?2008)?? 40?E.?Luce?Smith,?Furniture?a?Concise?History,?Thames?and?Hudson,?London,?1979,?pp.?93?94.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions????????????? Page?? 61? are?considered?to?be?more?of?a?public?art?their?inclusion?into?domestic?spaces?implies?that? one?purpose?of?these?spaces?may?be?to?make?public?statements.41??? ? It?is?clear?from?such?evidence?that?furniture?and?other?household?decorations?provide?a? form?of?communication?just?as?clothing?does.??Furniture?is?used?to?convince?others?of?ones? position?and?level?of?authority.??It?could?be?used?to?display?achievements?or?to?emulate? participation?in?fashionable?activities?or?to?facilitate?the?social?gatherings?where?this?kind?of? cultural?exchange?was?regarded?as?significant.??? ? One?idea?that?is?fairly?consistent?with?all?discussions?concerning?fashion?is?that?it?requires? some?level?of?complex?society?in?order?for?a?society?to?have?a?fashion?Furthermore,?the? more?complex?a?society?becomes,?the?greater?the?influence?that?fashion?has?upon?the?social? group?(This?will?be?discussed?in?detail?at?a?later?point???See?p.?44.)?The?first?level?of? complexity?that?supports?the?existence?of?fashion?is?some?kind?of?segmentation?by?class.???In? primitive?society,?where?there?is?little?or?no?class?structure?and?very?limited?forms?of? hierarchy,?it?is?thought?that?fashion?is?almost?non?existent.??The?other?extreme?might?be? represented?by?contemporary?western?society?and?its?complex?set?of?consumers?where? fashion?is?regarded?as?the?essential?engine?of?change.?? ? First?furniture?and?clothing?are?unnecessary?items?that?most?perceive?to?be?essential.??Let?s? consider?clothing;?most?would?agree?with?the?suggestion?that?clothing?in?some?form?is? considered?a?necessity.??We?need?it?for?warmth,?protection,?and?to?maintain?some?kind?of? innate?or?moralistic?need?for?privacy.??On?the?other?hand?clothing?has?been?shown?by?many? studying?primitive?societies?to?be?completely?unnecessary???neither?for?modesty?nor?as? protection?from?the?elements.?Many?have?also?argued?that?clothing?s?first?purpose?is?for? protection.42??But?there?are?exceptions?that?demonstrate?that?clothing?is?not?an?essential? 41?M.?Baker,?Public?Images?for?Private?Spaces???The?Place?for?Sculpture?in?the?Georgian?Domestic?Interior,? Journal?of?Design?History,?Vol?20?No.?4,?2007,?pp.?309?320.? 42?As?reported?in?Barnard,?M.,?Fashion?as?Communication,?p.?49,?there?are?several?authors?that?report?that? clothing?protects?individuals?from?weather,?from?accidents,?even?from??sins?,??the?unfriendliness?of?the? world??or?even??as?a?reassurance?against?the?lack?of?love?.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions????????????? Page?? 62? tool?for?protection.???Darwin,?for?example,?in?his?travels?through?the?Southern?Pacific?regions? found?and?documented?societies?that?did?not?wear?clothing?even?though?it?was?(to? European?standards)?quite?cold.43?? ? With?furniture???like?architecture?the?situation?is?similar???most?consider?the?need?for?chairs? to?sit?on,?beds?to?sleep?on,?and?tables?to?eat?off?of?as?indispensable?as?they?do?shelter?to? afford?privacy?and?protection.??But?yet,?it?is?well?known?that?some?cultures?do?not?find? chairs?and?tables?essential?and?many?do?not?resort?to?the?use?of?structures?(beyond? rudimentary?and/or?temporary).??This?leads?to?one?similarity?between?clothing?and?furniture? ??both?are?non?essential?and?are?only?used?because?of?socially?influenced?Western?norms?of? behaviour.??Both?items,?as?shown?before,?perform?a?perceived?use?and?they?act?as? 43?E.?Wilson,?in?her?article?Explaining?it?Away,?in?Fashion?Theory:??A?Reader?(Barnard,?M.,?ed)?quotes?from? Charles?Darwin?s?The?Voyage?of?the?Beagle,?J.?M.?Dent?and?Sons,?London,?1845,?pp.?202?203.? ? ??The?men?generally?have?an?otter?skin,?or?some?small?scrap?about?as?large?as?a?pocket?handkerchief,? which?is?barely?sufficient?to?cover?there?backs?as?low?as?their?loins.??It?is?laced?across?the?breast?by? strings,?and?according?as?the?wind?blows,?it?is?shifted?from?side?to?side.??But?these?Fuegians?in?the? canoe?were?quite?naked,?and?even?one?full?grown?woman???it?was?raining?heavily,?and?the?fresh? water,?together?with?the?spray,?trickled?down?her?body?? ? Later?C.?Darwin?commented?about?the?same?people:?? ? ??We?were?well?clothed,?and?though?sitting?close?to?the?fire?were?far?from?too?warm;??yet?these?naked? savages,?though?farther?off?,?were?observed?to?our?great?surprise,?to?be?streaming?with?perspiration?at? undergoing?such?a?roasting??? ? ?Another?writer,?D.?Roche,?while?discussing?the?development?of?fashion?in?17th?and?18th?Century?France,? summed?this?up?by?stating?? ? ?Shown?how?the?primitive?facts?of?protection,?decoration?and?modesty?only?become?clothing?facts? when?they?are?recognised?by?different?social?groups?and?form?part?of?cultural?wholes?defined?by?links? and?codes.?? ? (See?D.?Roche?and?J.?Birrell,?(Translated?by?J.?Birrell),?The?Culture?of?Clothing:??Dress?and?Fashion?in?the?Ancien? Regime,?Cambridge?University?Press,?Cambridge,?1996,?p.?44.)?Thus,?(within?limits) clothing?was?not?needed? for?protection?nor?was?there?an?innate?embarrassment?for?showing?what?Westerners?would?consider? uncomfortable?to?publicly?display?(and?perhaps?awkward?to?view?by?the?Western?visitors).??It?is?only?when?the? clothing?becomes?associated?with?some?meaning?does?it?become?relevant?to?either?an?individual?or?a?social? group.??E.?Wilson?goes?on?to?provide?other?examples?of?similar?discoveries?such?as?Thomas?Carlyle?(1795? 1881)?in?1831.??It?is?interesting?to?note?that?in?one?example?a?woman?was?embarrassed?because?she?did?not? have?a?particular?piece?of?jewellery?while?she?was?not?embarrassed?by?the?fact?that?particular?areas?of?her? body?were?not?covered.??This?further?suggests?that?our?embarrassment?concerning?how?our?bodies?are? covered?may?be?a?socially?learned?reaction?and?not?innate?at?all. MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions????????????? Page?? 63? decorative?items.??It?will?be?pointed?in?this?chapter?that?both?serve?to?communicate?ideas? about?the?owner.?? Another?similarity?is?that?both?clothing?and?furniture?go?through?periods?of?change?that? reflect?ideas?and?technical?changes?in?society.??Like?clothing?different?styles?of?furniture? become?popular?in?different?times.??For?example,?in?modern?times,?the?more?popular?pieces? are?those?that?are?lighter?in?colour?and?sparser?in?their?decoration?and?structure?probably?as? a?result?of?the?reduction?in?the? amount?of?space?and?the? brighter?lighting?that?is? available.??Whereas,?in?the? C18th,?the?wealthy?were? purchasing?very?large,?brightly? coloured?and?heavily? decorated?pieces?of?furniture,? No?doubt?that?the?selection?of? these?brightly?coloured,?very? dominant?pieces?of?furniture? was?at?least?in?part?due?to?the?large?rooms?and?the?darkness?of?the?rooms,?relative?to? modern?well?lit?interiors.???Technical?changes?also?occur?with?in?furniture?and?architectural? designs,?just?as?in?modern?buildings?the?use?of?lighter?and?stronger?structural?materials? allow?for?taller?buildings?as?the?invention?of?the?elevator?made?the?first?skyscraper? possible.44??New?Technologies?allowed?for?improved?methods?to?bend?wood?allowed?for?a? whole?new?range?of?furniture45.??Materials?also?changed.??In?the?C18th?leading?furniture? makers?began?experimenting?with?new?mechanical?devices?that?were?designed?to?make?the? furniture?serve?a?multitude?of?different?functions.?For?example,?David?Roentgen?(1743??? 1807)?a?German?cabinetmaker?of?the?C18th?was?known?for?both?his?marquetry?and?his? newly?designed?mechanical?fittings?that?became?a?favorite?of?his?patron?Marie?Antoinette.? 44?J.?Lienhard,?The?Engines?of?our?Ingenuity,?Oxford?University?Press,?Oxford,?2000,?p.?187.? 45?W.?Rieder,?Bentwood?Furniture:?A?Versital?Technique?to?Produce?Curvilinear?Designs?with?a?Modern?Flair,? Arch?Digest,August,?1996,?pp?106?111.? Figure?2?3:??Example?of?furniture?advancement?in?this?case?it?is?a? mechanical?desk?designed?for?Marie?Antoinette?by?Jean?Henri? Riesener?in?1778?? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions????????????? Page?? 64? At?one?time,?Roentgen?was?appointed??b?niste?mechanicien?by?Marie?Antoinette?because? of?his?proficiency?in?constructing?furniture?in?which?mechanical?devices?such?as?little? dressing?tables?and?washstands?which?converted?into?something?else?or?held?their? essentials?in?concealment?until?a?spring?was?touched.??? ? In?the?C18th,?as?writing?became?more?fashionable,?furniture?was?developed?to?facilitate?this? activity.??The?fact?that?Boucher?included?a?writing?desk?in?his?portrait?of?Madame?de? Pompadour?(See?Figure?2?1)?demonstrates?that?Madame?was?a?woman?of?letters,? suggesting?both?her?intellectual?skills?and?her?importance?in?society?(This?fashion?will?be? discussed?in?greater?detail?in?Chapter?III,?p.?118).???A?modern?example?of?such?a?piece?of? furniture?that?was?designed?to?accommodate?modern?activities?might?be?the?computer? desk;?as?computers?have?became?more?popular;?desks?to?facilitate?their?use?were? developed?and?have?become?fashionable.? ? All?of?this?suggests?several?things,?about?the?similarity?it?is?between?clothing?and?furniture.?? They?go?through?cycles?both?in?form,?function?and?appearance.??Neither?are?absolutely? necessary,?even?though?culture?has?deemed?them?to?be.?The?use?of?furniture?suggests?a? higher?level?of?complexity?in?the?society?that?uses?it?just?as?more?elaborate?variations?in? dressing?suggests?a?higher?social?complexity.??Changes?in?both?can?be?the?result?of?changes? in?activities,?changes?in?technologies,?or?simply?due?to?changes?in??taste?.??The?primary? difference?between?clothing?and?furniture,?which?might?affect?the?application?of?fashion? theories,?is?that?furniture?is?more?expensive?and?more?permanent?than?clothing.??The?result? is?that?the?time?between?the?purchases?for?furniture?are?longer?than?for?clothing,?thus?it? takes?longer?for?changes?in?furniture?fashion?than?it?takes?for?clothing?fashion.?However,? this?is?not?considered?an?issue?in?this?thesis.?? ? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions????????????? Page?? 65? How?does?fashion?work??Where?does?it?start??How?does?fashion?progress?beyond?an?idea?or? concept?to?becoming?a?widespread?cultural?phenomenon.?G.?Sproles?said?it?best?when?he? suggested:?46? ? ?Psychologists?speak?of?fashion?as?the?seeking?of?individuality;?sociologists?see?class?competition?and? social?conformity?to?norms?of?dress;?economists?see?a?pursuit?of?the?scarce;?aestheticians?view?the? artistic?components?and?ideals?of?beauty;?historians?offer?evolutionary?explanations?for?changes?in? design.?Literally?hundreds?of?viewpoints?unfold,?from?a?literature?more?immense?than?for?any? phenomenon?of?consumer?behaviour.?47?? ? ?Historically,?it?was?probably?the?late?C19th?when?fashion?started?to?be?taken?seriously?by? the?academic?community.???Thorstein?Veblen?(1899)?and?Georg?Simmel?(1904)?were?among? the?first?to?seriously?discuss?fashion?and?both?of?them?related?fashion?to?a?method?of?class? differentiation?and/or?integration.??These?explanations?remain?valid?today.??While?T.?Veblen? wrote?from?an?economic?sociological?viewpoint48,?G.?Simmel49?took?a?more?pure? sociological?approach?to?describing?how?fashion?develops.??In?1947,?Q.?Bell50?wrote?about? fashion?from?the?point?of?view?of?an?art?historian,?and?E.?Wilson?51?discussed?this?topic?as?an? economical/anthropological?phenomenon?and?others?took?a?pure?economic?approach?(S.? Bikhehandani,?D.?Hirshleifer?and?I.?Welch)52.?Probably?the?most?controversial?and?thoughtful? model?was?developed?by?P.?Bourdieu53?using?an?extensive?analysis?of?social?data?to? undercover?key?dimensions?to?fashion.??? 46?It?should?be?pointed?out?that?many?of?the?examples?given?in?this?section?are?from?times?after?the?C18th.?? While?on?the?surface?these?examples?may?seem?inappropriate,?they?are?only?used?to?illustrate?the?point?being? made?or?they?are?the?examples?used?by?the?original?author.??In?either?case,?if?the?point?is?supported?by?the? example,?it?does?not?necessarily?make?the?concept?being?discussed?less?applicable?for?the?C18th.?? 47?G.?Sproles?taken?from?M.?Soloman?(eds),?The?Psychology?of?Fashion,?Lexington?Books,?Lexington,?MA,?USA,? 1985,?p.57.?? 48?T.?Veblen,?The?Theory?of?the?Leisure?Class,?Macmilllian,?New?York,?1899.? 49?G.?Simmel,?Fashion,?The?American?Journal?of?Sociology,?Vol.?62,?No.?6,?May?1957.??Note?that?this?is?a?re?print? of?an?article?written?by?this?author?in?1904?in?the?International?Quarterly,?which?was?published?in?NY.? 50?Q.?Bell,?On?Human?Finery,?Allison?and?Busby,?London,?1947.? 51?E.?Wilson,?Adorned?in?Dreams:?Fashion?and?Modernity,?Rutgers?University?Press,?New?Jersey,?USA,?2003.? 52?S.?Bikhehandani,?D.?Hirshleifer?and?I.?Welch,?A?Theory?of?Fads,?Fashion,?Custom,?and?Cultural?Change?as? Informational?Cascades,?pp.?992?1026.? 53?See?for?example?one?of?P.?Bourdieu?most?famous?texts???P.?Bourdieu?(Translated?from?French?by?R.?Nice)? Distinction:??A?Social?Critique?of?the?Judgment?of?Taste,?Routledge,?London,?1986.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions????????????? Page?? 66? ? As?fashion?is?a?rich?and?varied?phenomenon,?there?are?several?theories?as?to?how??fashion?? operates.?Probably?one?of?the?most?common?approaches?to?describing?fashion?is?to? describe?it?as??moving??through?a?social?group.??Usually?this?movement?is?the?result?of?a? conflict?between?two?opposing?forces???the?desire?to?be?part?of?a?group?and?the?desire?to?be? an?individual?is?one?such?model.?This?is?what?is?referred?to?by?some?as?the?Diffusion?Model,? first?proposed?by?T.?Veblen54?then?more?fully?developed?by?G.?Simmel55.??G.?Simmel? perceived?fashion?to?be?a?simple?conflict?between?desires?to?be?part?of?a?group?and?yet?to? be?separate?from?others?emanating?in?part?from?class?divides?within?that?society:??? ? ?Fashion?is,?as?I?have?said,?a?product?of?class?division?and?operates???like?a?number?of?other?forms,? honour?especially???the?double?function?of?holding?a?given?social?circle?together?and?at?the?same?time? closing?it?off?from?others?.?Connection?and?differentiation?are?the?two?fundamental?functions,?which? are?here?inseparably?united,?of?which?one?of?the?two,?although?or?because?it?forms?a?logical?contrast? to?the?other,?becomes?the?condition?of?its?realization.??That?fashion?is?a?product?of?social?needs?is? perhaps?demonstrated?by?nothing?stronger?than?the?fact?that,?in?countless?instances,?not?the?slightest? reason?can?be?found?for?its?creations?from?the?standpoint?of?an?objective,?aesthetic?or?other? expediency.?56?57?? ? Consequentially,?fashion?is?the?natural?result?of?these?two?apparently?innate?opposing? drives???the?drive?to?be?the?member?of?a?group?or?to?conform?to?the?group?and?the?drive?to? differentiate?oneself?from?others58.??To?describe?this?in?another?way?fashion?is?the?result?of? 54?T.?Veblen,?The?Theory?of?the?Leisure?Class.? It?should?be?noted?that?T.?Veblen,?was?writing?from?the?perspective?of?a?Marxist?who?was?very?critical?of? fashion?as?a?phenomena?of?the?then?current?class?structure.??Fashion?was?a?part?of?a?system?that,?in?part,? through??conspicuous?consumption??(a?phrase?he?coined)?separated?the?wealthy??leisure?class??(another? phrase?that?he?created)?from?others.??This?process,?according?to?T.?Veblen,?was?a?waste?of?resources.?As?such? he?was?very?negative?to?the?concept?of?fashion.? 55?G.?Simmel,?Fashion.? 56?D.?Frisby?and?M.?Featherstone?(eds.)?Simmel?on?Culture,?Sage?Publications,?Ltd.,?London,?1997,?p.?189.? 57?It?should?be?pointed?out?that?G.?Simmel?perceived?most?human?endeavours?to?be?the?result?of?different? conflicts?between?extremes.??In?other?writings?he?discusses?the?conflict?between?subjective?and?objective? cultures,?between?moral?extremes,?etc.??On?occasion,?he?would?cross?over?to?discuss?more?metaphysical? conflicts?that?result?in?particular?behavioural?results.?? 58?It?could?be?pointed?out?that?G.?Simmel?thought?that?many?social?processes?were?brought?about?by?two? opposing?forces?such?as?the?desire?to?be?a?part?of?a?group?vs.?the?desire?to?be?different.?? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions????????????? Page?? 67? the?conflict?between?the?desire?to?look?the?same?vs.?the?desire?to?look?or?act?different.??As? G.?Simmel?goes?on?to?argue,?one?group?(the?higher?class)?finds?a?way?to?differentiate?itself? from?everyone?else?by?taking?on?a?particular?characteristic?or?form?of?personal?adornment? or?dress.??Once?the?other?groups?identify?this?new?attribute?they?begin?to?copy?it.??Once?the? first?group?realizes?that?they?have?been?copied,?they?abandon?that?characteristic?to?adopt?a? new,?differentiating?look.??Even?within?a?group,?individuals?find?ways?to?make?themselves? stand?out?from?the?other?members;?however?in?this?case,?they?are?doing?so?while?trying?to? maintain?their?identification?with?their?select?group?despite?their?desire?to?be?slightly? different.???T.?Veblen,?by?contrast,?argued?that?the?act?of?following?fashion?could?be?based? on?instincts?and?an?evolutionary?development?into?economic?theory.59?For?T.?Veblen,? instincts?are?the?driving?forces?for?human?actions?and?attitudes.??The?second?difference?he? observed?is?that?the?actual?act?of?consumption?(both?in?what?is?consumed?and?how?much?is? consumed)?in?itself?becomes?part?of?the?way?the?upper?class?differentiated?itself?from? others.60?? ? In?his?Theory?of?the?Leisure?Class,?T.?Veblen?portrays?an?upper?class?who?struggles?for?social? distinction?within?their?class,?and?whose?lifestyle?is?imitated?by?the?lower?classes.?For?T.? Veblen,?like?G.?Simmel,?fashion?operates?on?two?levels:?It?emerges?through?innovation? within?the?upper?classes?who?are?continually?creating?new?forms?of?dress,?which?are? frequently?more?sophisticated?and?more?expensive?in?order?to?reaffirm?their?higher?place? within?society.?Fashion?spreads?through?imitation?as?the?lower?classes?try?to?emulate?the? upper?classes.??Thus,?fashion?was?the?result?of??Pecuniary?Emulation??or?the?consequence?of? trying?to?emulate?those?of?higher?status.??His?negative?judgement?on?this?process?continues? to?come?through?as?he?describes?these?as?being?based?on?the?most?primitive?of?motives.?? ? ?The?whole?history?of?society?is?reflected?in?the?conflict,?the?compromise,?the?reconciliations???? ? (G.?Simmel,?The?Philosophy?of?Fashion,?In?D.?Frisby?and?M.?Featherstone?(eds.),?Simmel?on?Culture,?pp.?187??? 206.)? 59?In?fact,?T.?Veblen?perceived?all?social?and?economic?behaviour?to?be?based?on?instincts?and?the?evolutionary? process.? 60?This?actually?raises?a?question?with?G.?Simmel?s?approach.??This?concerns?the?fact?that?there?are?some?things? that?the?lower?classes?would?never?be?able?to?copy.??? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions????????????? Page?? 68? Ownership?of?more?is?equated?to?the?early?primitive?society,?where?brute?force?is?used?to? take?what?one?wants?from?others61.??It?was?also?perceived?as?a?tool?used?by?those?in?the? upper?classes?to?deprive?others?of?a?way?to?move?up?the?social?ladder.? ? Thus,?T.?Veblen?thought?that?modern?man?was?no?better?than?primitive?man?except?that? instead?of?fighting?over?pieces?of?flesh?from?a?recent?kill,?they?were?fighting?over?goods?and? prestige.?Clothing?fashions,?according?to?T.?Veblen,?were?primarily?aimed?at?women?to? demonstrate?that?they?do?not?work?(hence?they?are?part?of?the??Leisure?Class?).??While?his? theories?do?differ?substantially?from?that?of?G.?Simmel?s,?there?are?similarities.??First?the? adoption?of?fashion?was?perceived?by?both?to?be?a?natural?process?that?is?expected?given? human?s?natural?desires?and?behaviours,?second?it?is?in?part?the?result?of?a?class?conflict?and? that?fashion?was?enacted?by?the?lower?socio?economic?group?imitating?the?higher?segment.?? Third,?neither?thought?that?fashion?was?that?positive?(T.?Veblen?was,?however,?much?more? dismissive?of?fashion.)??They?also?agreed?that?it?is?individual?who?creates?fashion;?however? they?differ?in?that?T.?Veblen?believed?that?an?external?force?(evolution)?drives?the?individual? to?make?these?choices?compared?to?G.?Simmel?who?placed?the?decision?on?individuals?and? their?conflicting?desires?to?be?part?of?a?group?vs.?to?differentiate?themselves.62? ? It?is?easy?to?see?why?fashion?theory?has?so?often?turned?to?class.?In?the?late?C19th?and?early? C20th?French?couture?was?dominated?by?figures?that?included?Jacques?Doucet,?Madame? Paquin,?the?Callot?sisters?and?Jean?and?Gaston?Worth???and?French?couture?dominated?the? fashions?of?Europe.???All?were?very?upmarket?designers?whose?products?were?intended?for? the?wealthy?and?whose?fashionable?lines?were?subsequently?adopted?and?adapted?for?the? middle?and?working?classes.?Even?in?the?U.S.?where?a?mass?produced?clothing?industry?was? in?its?infancy,?most?wealthy?individuals?still?had?their?apparel?made?for?them?rather?than? buying?clothing?"off?the?rack",?exercising?an?important?influence?on?fashions?of?the?day.??? 61?T.?Veblen,?The?Theory?of?the?Leisure?Class.? 62?This?however,?began?to?change?in?G.?Simmel?s?later?writings?according?to?Lehmann,?U.?in?his?book? Tigersprung.?(U.?Lehmann,?Tigersprung:?Fashion?In?Modernity,?MIT?Press,?Cambridge,?MA,?USA,?2000.)?